Academic English & Research Vocabulary: 200 Key English Terms

et al.

abbreviation

Meaning

A Latin abbreviation meaning 'and others', used in citations instead of listing all the authors of a work with several authors.

Where you use it

Short for et alii. In APA 7th edition, a work with three or more authors is cited with the first author's surname plus et al. from the first citation, as in (Demir et al., 2022). The reference list still names the authors in full, up to the limit the style sets.

Examples

1. Demir et al. (2022) found similar results with secondary school students.

2. Write et al. with a full stop after al, but not after et.

Usage note

Common mistakes are 'et. al.' and 'et al' without a full stop. Al is short for alii, so only al needs a full stop.

Common phrases

first author et al. · cite with et al. · et al. in the citation

APA style

noun

Meaning

The writing and citation rules of the American Psychological Association, based on author-date citations and widely used in the social sciences, education and psychology.

Where you use it

Set out in the Publication Manual of the APA, now in its 7th edition. It covers citations, the reference list, headings, tables and figures, and bias-free language. People say a paper should be 'in APA style' or 'in APA 7'. Other common styles are MLA, Chicago, Harvard and IEEE.

Examples

1. The journal requires all references to follow APA style, 7th edition.

2. In APA style, the year comes right after the author's name.

Common phrases

follow APA style · APA 7th edition · format in APA style · APA referencing

bibliography

noun

Meaning

A list of sources on a subject placed at the end of a work; unlike a reference list, it may include works consulted but not cited.

Where you use it

Common in the humanities and in the Chicago tradition; MLA calls its list Works Cited. Many students use bibliography loosely for any list of references. An annotated bibliography adds a short summary or evaluation of each source.

Examples

1. The bibliography includes several archival sources that are not cited in the main text.

2. For the first assignment, prepare an annotated bibliography of ten sources.

Common phrases

annotated bibliography · compile a bibliography · select bibliography · full bibliography

DOI

abbreviation

Meaning

Digital Object Identifier: a permanent code given to an article, book chapter or dataset so that it can always be found online, even if its web address changes.

Where you use it

A DOI starts with 10. followed by a prefix, a slash and a suffix. APA 7 asks writers to give DOIs as links beginning https://doi.org/. Many reference managers fill in the details of a source automatically from its DOI.

Examples

1. Please add the DOI for each journal article in your reference list.

2. I pasted the DOI into Zotero and it created the full reference.

Common phrases

add the DOI · DOI link · assign a DOI · DOI number

reporting verb

noun

Meaning

A verb such as argue, state, suggest or find that introduces what another author has said, claimed or discovered.

Where you use it

The choice shows your attitude to a source: state and describe are neutral, argue and claim present a position, and demonstrate or establish suggest you accept the evidence. Tense varies by style: APA prefers past or present perfect, while the humanities prefer the present.

Examples

1. Vary your reporting verbs instead of using 'says' for every author.

2. Choose a reporting verb such as 'claims' only when you want to show some distance from the author's view.

Common phrases

choose a reporting verb · neutral reporting verb · a range of reporting verbs · reporting verb tense

footnote

noun

Meaning

A numbered note at the bottom of a page that gives a source or extra information connected to a point in the main text.

Where you use it

In history, law and many humanities fields, sources are cited in footnotes, for example in Chicago notes-bibliography style. In APA and other author-date styles, footnotes are rare and used only for brief extra comments. Notes collected at the end of a chapter or book are endnotes.

Examples

1. The original Ottoman term is explained in a footnote.

2. Use footnotes for citations, as required by the Chicago style.

Common phrases

in a footnote · add a footnote · footnote citation · footnotes and endnotes

reference manager

noun

Meaning

Software that stores your sources, inserts citations into a document and creates the reference list in the required style.

Where you use it

Popular tools include Zotero, Mendeley and EndNote. They import records from databases, store PDFs and work with Word or LaTeX. Supervisors often advise starting one early in a thesis; the output still needs checking, because imported records can contain errors.

Examples

1. I use a reference manager, so changing from APA to Harvard took only a few minutes.

2. Which reference manager does your research group use?

Common phrases

use a reference manager · reference management software · import references · change the citation style

Harvard referencing

noun

Meaning

A widely used author–date citation system in which the author's surname and year appear in the text, with full details in an alphabetical reference list.

Where you use it

Common in UK and Australian universities and in business and the social sciences. There is no single official version: each university publishes its own Harvard guide with small differences in punctuation. In-text citations look like (Smith, 2020, p. 14) or Smith (2020).

Examples

1. The module handbook requires Harvard referencing for all assignments.

2. Check your university's guide, because Harvard referencing varies between institutions.

Common phrases

Harvard style · author-date system · use Harvard referencing · Harvard referencing guide

secondary citation

noun

Meaning

A citation of a source you have not read yourself but know about only because another author described or quoted it.

Where you use it

In APA style: (Piaget, 1952, as cited in Smith, 2020), and only Smith goes in the reference list. Supervisors expect secondary citations to be rare, so find and read the original when you can. Turkish texts often use 'akt.' for 'as cited in'.

Examples

1. If you cannot access the original book, use a secondary citation and name the source you actually read.

2. This thesis contains too many secondary citations from a single textbook.

Common phrases

as cited in · use a secondary citation · avoid secondary citations · cite the original source

ibid.

abbreviation

Meaning

A Latin abbreviation of ibidem ('in the same place'), used in a note to refer to the source cited in the note immediately before.

Where you use it

Found in footnote styles, especially in history, law and older publications; a page number is added if it differs: 'Ibid., 45.' APA, MLA and Harvard do not use it, and recent editions of the Chicago Manual of Style prefer shortened citations, although ibid. is still accepted.

Examples

1. Note 12 simply reads 'Ibid., 87', referring to the same archive file.

2. Chicago style allows ibid., but many editors now prefer shortened notes.

Usage note

Ibid. refers only to the note immediately before. If another source is cited in between, use a shortened citation instead.

Common phrases

Ibid., p. 45 · use ibid. · ibid. and op. cit. · shortened note

block quotation

noun

Meaning

A long quotation set apart from the main text as an indented paragraph, without quotation marks.

Where you use it

In APA style, quotations of 40 words or more become block quotations, indented 0.5 inch, with the citation after the final punctuation. MLA uses them for prose longer than four lines. Use them sparingly and always comment on the quoted text afterward.

Examples

1. Quotations longer than 40 words should be formatted as a block quotation.

2. Your essay has three block quotations on one page; paraphrase some of them instead.

Common phrases

format as a block quotation · block quote · indented quotation · introduce a block quotation

argument

noun

Meaning

A position supported by reasons and evidence, or the line of reasoning that runs through an essay, article or thesis.

Where you use it

Central to academic writing: you make, develop, present or support an argument, and readers find it convincing, weak or persuasive. Supervisors often ask 'What is your main argument?' when a draft only describes sources.

Examples

1. The central argument of this paper is that urban gardens strengthen local communities.

2. Your argument would be stronger with more recent evidence.

Usage note

In everyday English, an argument is also a quarrel. In academic English it almost always means reasoning.

Common phrases

main argument · develop an argument · support an argument · convincing argument · line of argument

evidence

noun

Meaning

Facts, data or findings that show whether a claim or idea is true or likely to be true.

Where you use it

Academic writers provide, present or cite evidence for a claim, and evidence can be strong, limited, mixed or empirical. Typical phrases: there is growing evidence that, the evidence suggests, evidence-based practice.

Examples

1. There is growing evidence that reading at home in early childhood affects vocabulary size.

2. This claim needs more evidence; at the moment it rests on a single study.

Usage note

Evidence is uncountable: say 'some evidence' or 'a piece of evidence', not 'an evidence' or 'evidences'.

Common phrases

provide evidence · strong evidence · empirical evidence · the evidence suggests · lack of evidence

hedging

noun

Meaning

Using cautious language, such as may, might, appear to or suggest, so that a claim is only as strong as the evidence allows.

Where you use it

A key feature of academic style that writing courses teach explicitly. Hedges include modal verbs (may, could), verbs (seem, tend to), adverbs (possibly, likely) and phrases (to some extent). Too little hedging sounds overconfident; too much sounds vague.

Examples

1. Good hedging helps you avoid overclaiming: write 'may contribute to' instead of 'causes'.

2. The reviewer felt there was too much hedging in the discussion, so the conclusions seemed unclear.

Usage note

The verb is hedge: 'The authors hedge their conclusions carefully.'

Common phrases

use hedging · hedging language · hedging devices · appropriate hedging

argue

verb

Meaning

To state a position and give reasons and evidence to show why it is right; in academic writing it also reports what an author claims.

Where you use it

A key reporting verb: 'Smith (2018) argues that...'. It signals that the author is making a case, not just describing. Related reporting verbs include claim, contend, maintain and suggest, each with a slightly different strength.

Examples

1. Kaya (2020) argues that assessment should focus on the learning process.

2. In this chapter, I argue that the policy had unintended effects.

Usage note

In daily English, argue often means to quarrel ('They argued all night'). In academic texts it nearly always means to make a reasoned case.

Common phrases

argue that · argue for · argue against · convincingly argue · it has been argued

claim

noun

Meaning

A statement that something is true, which may or may not yet be supported by enough evidence.

Where you use it

Writers make, support, challenge or qualify a claim, and reviewers comment on unsupported or overstated claims. As a verb, claim is a reporting verb that can suggest doubt about the statement, so it sounds more distant than argue or show.

Examples

1. This claim is not supported by the data presented in Table 4.

2. The authors claim that the method works in all contexts, but they tested it in only one country.

Common phrases

make a claim · support a claim · challenge a claim · unsupported claim · overstated claim

suggest

verb

Meaning

In academic writing, to indicate that something is probably true without proving it; it can also mean to put forward an idea or recommendation.

Where you use it

One of the most useful hedging verbs: 'The results suggest that...'. It is weaker than show or prove. In the 'recommend' meaning, it is followed by a that-clause or an -ing form: 'We suggest using larger samples.'

Examples

1. These findings suggest that motivation plays a larger role than expected.

2. As Reviewer 1 suggested, future studies could test whether the effect lasts.

Usage note

In the 'recommend' meaning, do not use an infinitive: say 'suggest using' or 'suggest that we use', not 'suggest to use'.

Common phrases

the results suggest · evidence suggests · suggest that · strongly suggest · as the data suggest

to some extent

phrase

Meaning

Partly but not completely; used to limit how strongly a claim is made.

Where you use it

A common hedging phrase in discussion sections and essays: 'This is true to some extent.' Variants include to a certain extent, to a large extent and to a lesser extent. It can begin or end a clause.

Examples

1. To some extent, the results confirm earlier findings, but the effect was smaller.

2. Online tools reduced students' anxiety to some extent.

Common phrases

true to some extent · agree to some extent · to a certain extent · to a large extent

counterargument

noun

Meaning

An argument against your own position, which a writer presents fairly and then answers or weakens to make the main argument stronger.

Where you use it

Argumentative essays and discussion sections often include a counterargument followed by a rebuttal. Writers acknowledge, address, consider or refute counterarguments. It is also written counter-argument, especially in British English.

Examples

1. A common counterargument is that online exams make cheating easier.

2. Your essay would be more convincing if you addressed at least one counterargument.

Common phrases

address a counterargument · consider counterarguments · refute a counterargument · anticipate counterarguments

stance

noun

Meaning

A writer's position or attitude toward a topic or claim, shown through word choice, use of evidence and how strongly ideas are expressed.

Where you use it

Writers take, adopt or make clear a stance, and tutors may comment that a student's stance is unclear or too neutral. Stance markers include hedges (may, perhaps), boosters (clearly, undoubtedly) and attitude words (surprisingly, unfortunately).

Examples

1. The author takes a critical stance toward standardized testing.

2. Make your stance clear in the introduction so the reader knows what you are arguing.

Common phrases

take a stance · critical stance · clear stance · adopt a stance · authorial stance

it could be argued that

phrase

Meaning

A cautious, impersonal way to introduce a point or interpretation without presenting it as a fixed personal opinion.

Where you use it

A classic hedging phrase in essays and discussion sections. It can introduce your own view politely or a view you will then answer. Variants: it can be argued that, it may be argued that, one could argue that.

Examples

1. It could be argued that the policy helped large schools more than small ones.

2. It could be argued that the sample is too narrow; however, the aim was depth rather than breadth.

Common phrases

it can be argued that · one could argue that · it might be argued that · it could also be argued that

acknowledge

verb

Meaning

To accept or admit that something is true or exists, such as a limitation or an opposing view; also to thank people or name sources formally.

Where you use it

Strong academic writing acknowledges limitations and counterarguments before responding to them: 'While it must be acknowledged that ..., ...'. Authors also acknowledge funding and help in the acknowledgments section, and every borrowed idea must be acknowledged through citation.

Examples

1. We acknowledge that self-reported data may be affected by social desirability.

2. We gratefully acknowledge funding from the university's research fund.

Common phrases

acknowledge a limitation · it must be acknowledged that · acknowledge the support of · widely acknowledged

arguably

adverb

Meaning

Used to say that a statement can reasonably be supported with arguments, even if not everyone would agree with it.

Where you use it

A compact way to make a strong but hedged claim, often with superlatives: arguably the most influential, arguably the best. It softens the claim while still showing your position. Overusing it can make writing sound unsure.

Examples

1. Piaget is arguably the most influential figure in the history of developmental psychology.

2. This is arguably the main weakness of the model.

Common phrases

arguably the most · arguably the best · is arguably · arguably more important

tentative

adjective

Meaning

Not certain or final; said of conclusions, explanations or plans that may change when more evidence becomes available.

Where you use it

Often used about your own conclusions when evidence is limited: tentative conclusions, a tentative explanation, tentative evidence. The adverb tentatively is frequent in discussions: 'These results tentatively suggest ...'. Being tentative is a key part of hedging.

Examples

1. Given the small sample, our conclusions must remain tentative.

2. We offer a tentative explanation for this unexpected result.

Common phrases

tentative conclusion · tentative explanation · tentatively suggest · remain tentative

plausible

adjective

Meaning

Reasonable and likely to be true, although not yet proven by clear evidence.

Where you use it

Used when offering explanations in discussion sections: a plausible explanation, a plausible mechanism, it seems plausible that. The opposite, implausible, is used to reject explanations politely. The noun is plausibility.

Examples

1. One plausible explanation is that students had more time to practice.

2. It seems plausible that teacher experience moderates this effect.

Common phrases

plausible explanation · it seems plausible that · biologically plausible · highly plausible

tend to

phrase

Meaning

To be likely to behave or happen in a particular way, used to describe a general pattern rather than a rule without exceptions.

Where you use it

A very common hedge for generalizations: 'Older participants tended to ...' instead of 'Older participants always ...'. The noun tendency works the same way: 'There was a tendency for ...'. It fits both results sections and literature reviews.

Examples

1. Female students tended to report higher levels of test anxiety.

2. Small schools tend to have fewer specialist teachers.

Common phrases

tend to be · tended to report · tend to agree · there is a tendency for

it is worth noting that

phrase

Meaning

A phrase used to draw the reader's attention to a point that is important, surprising or easy to miss.

Where you use it

Common in results and discussion sections. Variants are it should be noted that, it is important to note that and notably. Keep it for points that really deserve attention; using it in every paragraph weakens it and adds words.

Examples

1. It is worth noting that none of the participants had used the software before.

2. It is also worth noting that the effect was strongest in the first week.

Common phrases

it is also worth noting that · it should be noted that · it is important to note that · notably

assert

verb

Meaning

To state firmly that something is true, often without hedging or before offering full evidence.

Where you use it

A strong reporting verb: 'Smith (2018) asserts that ...' shows the author is confident and may suggest that you are not fully convinced. Contend and maintain are similar. The noun assertion is often used critically: an unsupported assertion.

Examples

1. The report asserts that the reform improved outcomes, but provides no data.

2. Avoid asserting causal links when your design is correlational.

Common phrases

assert that · strongly assert · unsupported assertion · boldly assert

refute

verb

Meaning

To prove with evidence or argument that a claim, theory or accusation is wrong.

Where you use it

In careful academic usage, to refute is to disprove, not just to deny. Writers refute a claim, an argument or a hypothesis. Many style guides warn against using it to mean simply 'reject'; use deny, dispute or reject when no proof is involved.

Examples

1. Large studies have refuted the claim that the MMR vaccine causes autism.

2. In the next section, I refute three common objections to this view.

Common phrases

refute a claim · refute an argument · attempt to refute · convincingly refute

caveat

noun

Meaning

A warning or condition that limits how a statement or result should be understood or applied.

Where you use it

Used when presenting results honestly: 'One caveat is that ...', 'with the caveat that ...', 'an important caveat'. It does the job of hedging in a single word. It comes from a Latin word meaning 'let him beware'.

Examples

1. One important caveat is that all data were self-reported.

2. The results are promising, with the caveat that the follow-up period was short.

Common phrases

one caveat is that · with the caveat that · an important caveat · add a caveat

abstract

noun

Meaning

A short summary at the start of an article, thesis or conference submission that states the aim, methods, main findings and conclusion.

Where you use it

Usually 150 to 300 words, depending on the journal or conference. Readers and editors often decide from the abstract alone whether to read further. You write, submit or revise an abstract, and conferences accept or reject abstracts.

Examples

1. The abstract must not exceed 250 words.

2. Our abstract was accepted for an oral presentation at the conference in Lisbon.

Usage note

As an adjective ('an abstract idea'), abstract means not concrete. As a verb it is stressed on the second syllable: /æbˈstrækt/.

Common phrases

submit an abstract · write an abstract · extended abstract · abstract deadline · structured abstract

thesis

noun

Meaning

A long piece of original research written for a university degree; also the main idea or position that an essay or article argues for.

Where you use it

You write, submit and defend a thesis, such as a master's thesis or PhD thesis. In essay writing, the thesis statement is the sentence that states your main argument. The plural is theses /ˈθiːsiːz/.

Examples

1. She submitted her master's thesis in June and defended it in September.

2. The thesis statement should appear at the end of your introduction.

Usage note

In the US, a thesis is usually for a master's degree and a dissertation for a PhD; in the UK, a PhD project is normally called a thesis.

Common phrases

write a thesis · submit a thesis · defend a thesis · PhD thesis · thesis statement

dissertation

noun

Meaning

A long, formal piece of research writing completed for a degree; in the US usually a doctoral thesis, in the UK often a final project for a bachelor's or master's.

Where you use it

Common in university regulations and in conversations with supervisors: dissertation topic, dissertation committee, dissertation defense. Which word is used, thesis or dissertation, depends on the country and the institution.

Examples

1. He is writing his doctoral dissertation on migration and urban housing.

2. The undergraduate dissertation should be around 10,000 words.

Common phrases

doctoral dissertation · dissertation committee · dissertation topic · complete a dissertation

paper

noun

Meaning

An academic article, either published in a journal or presented at a conference; researchers use it as the everyday word for their written studies.

Where you use it

The most common informal word among researchers: you write, publish, submit, present or review a paper. 'This paper argues...' and 'In this paper, we...' are standard openings in abstracts and introductions.

Examples

1. This paper examines how remote work affects team communication.

2. I am presenting a paper on digital archives at the conference next week.

Usage note

With this meaning paper is countable (a paper, two papers); as a material it is uncountable (some paper).

Common phrases

write a paper · publish a paper · present a paper · conference paper · research paper

conclusion

noun

Meaning

The final section of a thesis or article that sums up the main findings, their meaning and limitations; also a judgment reached after considering evidence.

Where you use it

As a section, the conclusion answers the research questions, states the contribution and often points to future research; it does not introduce new data. 'In conclusion' is a common signpost in student essays but appears less often in published articles.

Examples

1. The conclusion should answer each research question briefly.

2. We reached the conclusion that the intervention was effective only for younger learners.

Common phrases

reach a conclusion · in conclusion · conclusion chapter · tentative conclusion

discussion

noun

Meaning

The section of a research article or thesis that interprets the results, compares them with earlier studies and explains their meaning and limitations.

Where you use it

The D in IMRaD. Many writers find it the hardest section: it moves from the main findings to explanations, links with the literature, implications and limitations. It is sometimes combined with the results as 'Results and Discussion'.

Examples

1. In the discussion, compare your results with the studies you reviewed in Chapter 2.

2. The reviewer felt that the discussion simply repeated the results.

Common phrases

discussion section · results and discussion · in the discussion · general discussion

draft

noun

Meaning

An early or unfinished version of a piece of writing, such as a chapter or article, that will be revised before it is final.

Where you use it

Students send drafts to supervisors and co-authors for feedback: a first draft, a rough draft, a final draft. Draft is also a verb: 'I am drafting the introduction.' Academic texts usually go through several drafts.

Examples

1. I'll send you the first draft of Chapter 3 by Friday.

2. This draft is much clearer than the previous version.

Common phrases

first draft · rough draft · final draft · send a draft · revise a draft

limitation

noun

Meaning

A weakness or restriction in a study's design, sample or methods that affects how far its findings can be generalized or trusted.

Where you use it

Usually plural: a limitations section or paragraph near the end of the discussion. Writers acknowledge, discuss or address limitations, and reviewers expect them to be stated honestly and followed by suggestions for future research.

Examples

1. One limitation of this study is its reliance on self-reported data.

2. The authors should discuss the limitations of the small sample more openly.

Common phrases

limitations of the study · acknowledge limitations · a major limitation · despite these limitations

proofread

verb

Meaning

To read a finished text carefully to find and correct mistakes in spelling, grammar, punctuation and formatting before it is submitted.

Where you use it

The last step before submitting a thesis or manuscript. Researchers proofread their own work or have it proofread by a colleague or a professional service. Proofreading is narrower than editing, which can change content and structure. The past form is also proofread, pronounced /ˈpruːfred/.

Examples

1. Could you proofread my abstract before I submit it tonight?

2. The manuscript was carefully proofread by a native speaker.

Common phrases

proofread a manuscript · carefully proofread · proofreading service · proofread for errors

IMRaD

abbreviation

Meaning

Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion: the standard four-part structure of empirical research articles, especially in the sciences.

Where you use it

Also written IMRAD. Most journals in medicine, science, psychology and education expect this structure, with an abstract before it and sometimes a separate conclusion after it. Each section answers a question: why, how, what was found and what it means.

Examples

1. The journal asks authors to follow the IMRaD format.

2. If your supervisor agrees, each empirical chapter of the thesis can follow an IMRaD structure.

Common phrases

IMRaD format · IMRaD structure · follow IMRaD

introduction

noun

Meaning

The opening section of an article, thesis or essay, which presents the topic, shows why it matters, identifies a gap and states the aim of the work.

Where you use it

Many writers follow John Swales's CARS model: establish the territory, identify a niche (a gap) and occupy it by stating the aim. In articles the introduction usually ends with the research questions or an outline of the paper; many authors write it last.

Examples

1. Your introduction should make the research gap clear by the end of the second paragraph.

2. In the introduction, the authors briefly review earlier work on bilingual memory.

Common phrases

write the introduction · in the introduction · introduction chapter · the introduction sets out

methods section

noun

Meaning

The part of a research article or thesis that explains how the study was carried out, so that readers can judge it and others could repeat it.

Where you use it

It typically describes the design, participants, materials or instruments, procedure and data analysis. The heading varies: APA uses Method, the life sciences use Materials and Methods, and a thesis usually has a Methodology chapter. It is mostly written in the past tense.

Examples

1. The methods section should give enough detail for another team to replicate the study.

2. Reviewer 2 asked us to move the ethics statement to the methods section.

Common phrases

in the methods section · describe in the methods section · detailed methods section · materials and methods

keyword

noun

Meaning

One of a small set of words or short phrases listed under an abstract to describe the main topics of a paper and help people find it in databases.

Where you use it

Journals usually ask for three to six keywords, often separated by semicolons. Good keywords add terms that are not already in the title. In literature searches, keywords are also the search terms you type into a database, combined with AND and OR.

Examples

1. Please provide four to six keywords that do not repeat words from the title.

2. We searched Scopus using the keywords 'teacher burnout' and 'secondary school'.

Common phrases

provide keywords · keyword search · search keywords · relevant keywords

appendix

noun

Meaning

A section at the end of a thesis, report or article that contains extra material, such as questionnaires, interview questions or detailed tables.

Where you use it

Material goes in an appendix when it supports the text but would interrupt the reader. Appendices are labeled (Appendix A, Appendix B) and referred to in the text. Journals often call this supplementary material and publish it online.

Examples

1. The full interview protocol is provided in Appendix B.

2. Move the long tables to an appendix and keep only the summary in the chapter.

Usage note

The usual plural in academic writing is appendices; appendixes is also correct but less common.

Common phrases

see Appendix A · include in an appendix · online appendix · supplementary material

thesis statement

noun

Meaning

A sentence, usually near the end of an essay's introduction, that states the main argument or position the writer will support.

Where you use it

Central to essay writing at English-medium universities and in preparatory programs. A good thesis statement is specific and arguable, not just a fact, and every paragraph should support it. It has nothing to do with writing a thesis for a degree.

Examples

1. Your thesis statement is too broad; focus on one clear argument.

2. The thesis statement argues that social media has changed how young people read the news.

Common phrases

write a thesis statement · clear thesis statement · support the thesis statement · restate the thesis

topic sentence

noun

Meaning

A sentence, usually the first in a paragraph, that states the main idea the rest of the paragraph develops.

Where you use it

Taught in academic writing courses together with supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. Clear topic sentences let readers skim a text and still follow the argument. In longer research writing, they often link back to the previous paragraph.

Examples

1. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that links to your thesis.

2. This paragraph has no clear topic sentence, so the main point gets lost.

Common phrases

write a topic sentence · clear topic sentence · topic sentence and supporting sentences · open with a topic sentence

signposting

noun

Meaning

Words and phrases that tell readers or listeners how a text or talk is organized and where the argument is going next.

Where you use it

Examples: 'This chapter is organized as follows', 'As discussed in Section 2', 'Turning now to ...', 'In the next section ...'. It is essential in long theses and in conference talks, where listeners cannot look back. The verb is signpost.

Examples

1. Your chapters need more signposting so the reader can follow the argument.

2. Good signposting at the start of a talk tells the audience what to expect.

Common phrases

signposting language · clear signposting · signpost the argument · signposting phrases

acknowledgments

noun

Meaning

A short section of a thesis, book or article in which the author thanks people and institutions that helped with or funded the work.

Where you use it

Theses usually thank the supervisor, committee, participants, family and funders. In articles, the acknowledgments name funding bodies and grant numbers, as well as people who helped but do not meet authorship criteria. British spelling: acknowledgements.

Examples

1. The acknowledgments section thanks the participating schools and the funding agency.

2. Remember to list your project number in the acknowledgments.

Common phrases

acknowledgments section · in the acknowledgments · funding acknowledgment · write the acknowledgments

rationale

noun

Meaning

The reasons that explain why a study is needed or why a particular decision, such as a method or sample, was made.

Where you use it

Proposals and introductions present the rationale for the study, usually based on a research gap and its practical importance. Methods sections give the rationale for design choices. Reviewers often comment that the rationale is unclear or weak.

Examples

1. The rationale for the study is the lack of data on adult learners in distance education.

2. Please explain the rationale for choosing a qualitative design.

Usage note

Rationale (a noun meaning the reasons) is different from rational (an adjective meaning based on reason). In rationale, the last syllable is stressed.

Common phrases

rationale for the study · provide a rationale · clear rationale · the rationale behind

peer review

noun

Meaning

The process in which experts in the same field evaluate a manuscript or grant proposal before it is accepted, revised or rejected.

Where you use it

Journals send submissions out for peer review, and a paper is 'under review' while this happens. Common types are single-blind, double-blind and open peer review. Peer-reviewed journals are generally treated as more reliable sources.

Examples

1. Our manuscript has been under peer review for three months now.

2. Only peer-reviewed articles were included in the systematic review.

Usage note

In classrooms, peer review also means students giving feedback on each other's work.

Common phrases

undergo peer review · double-blind peer review · peer-reviewed journal · send out for peer review

journal

noun

Meaning

A regular publication containing research articles in a particular field, usually checked by peer review before publication.

Where you use it

Researchers publish in, submit to or target a journal. Journals are indexed in databases such as Web of Science and Scopus and compared with metrics such as the impact factor. Volume, issue and page numbers appear in citations.

Examples

1. We plan to submit the paper to a journal in applied linguistics.

2. This journal publishes four issues a year and is indexed in Scopus.

Usage note

Use journal, not magazine, for academic publications; a magazine is a popular publication for general readers.

Common phrases

academic journal · peer-reviewed journal · publish in a journal · journal article · top-tier journal

manuscript

noun

Meaning

The text of an article or book that an author submits to a journal or publisher before it is accepted and published.

Where you use it

The standard word in journal correspondence and submission systems: manuscript ID, manuscript number, the revised manuscript. Editors write that they have received, reviewed or accepted your manuscript.

Examples

1. Please find attached the revised manuscript and our response to the reviewers.

2. Your manuscript has been sent to two external reviewers.

Usage note

In publishing it does not mean a handwritten text, even though the Latin roots mean 'written by hand'.

Common phrases

submit a manuscript · revised manuscript · manuscript ID · accepted manuscript · prepare a manuscript

submit

verb

Meaning

To formally send a piece of work, such as an article, thesis, abstract or application, to the people who will judge it.

Where you use it

Used for journals (submit to a journal), conferences (submit an abstract), universities (submit a thesis) and funders (submit a proposal). The noun is submission: 'Submissions close on 15 March.'

Examples

1. We submitted the article to the journal in January and have not heard back yet.

2. The thesis must be submitted to the graduate school at least one month before the defense.

Common phrases

submit a manuscript · submit to a journal · submit an abstract · submit a thesis · online submission

reviewer

noun

Meaning

An expert who reads a submitted manuscript or proposal and gives the editor an evaluation and a recommendation, such as accept, revise or reject.

Where you use it

Journals usually invite two or three reviewers, often anonymous. Authors receive reviewer comments or reports and reply point by point, referring to Reviewer 1, Reviewer 2 and so on. Referee is a synonym, more common in some sciences and in British usage.

Examples

1. Reviewer 2 asked us to add a comparison with earlier models.

2. We thank the reviewers for their careful reading and helpful comments.

Common phrases

anonymous reviewer · reviewer comments · respond to reviewers · external reviewer · reviewer report

revise and resubmit

phrase

Meaning

An editor's decision that a manuscript cannot be accepted yet but may be reconsidered if the authors make substantial changes and submit it again.

Where you use it

Often shortened to R&R and close to a major revision decision. Authors revise the paper and write a response letter that answers each reviewer comment point by point. An R&R is generally seen as good news, but acceptance is not guaranteed.

Examples

1. Good news: we got a revise and resubmit from the journal!

2. The editor invited us to revise and resubmit the paper within 60 days.

Common phrases

get a revise and resubmit · R&R decision · respond to an R&R · response to reviewers

desk rejection

noun

Meaning

The rejection of a manuscript by the editor before it is sent to reviewers, often because it does not fit the journal's scope or standards.

Where you use it

Very common at highly ranked journals. Typical reasons are a poor fit with the journal's aims, a weak contribution, or serious problems with language or format. The verb is desk-reject: 'The paper was desk-rejected.' The decision is usually fast, sometimes within days.

Examples

1. We received a desk rejection within a week because the paper was outside the journal's scope.

2. A desk rejection is disappointing, but at least you can quickly submit elsewhere.

Common phrases

receive a desk rejection · desk rejection rate · be desk-rejected · avoid a desk rejection

impact factor

noun

Meaning

A yearly measure of how often articles in a journal are cited on average, based on citations in one year to items published in the two previous years.

Where you use it

The Journal Impact Factor is published by Clarivate in Journal Citation Reports for journals indexed in the Web of Science. Researchers talk about high-impact journals and a journal's impact factor. It measures journals, not individual articles or researchers, and varies greatly between fields.

Examples

1. The journal has an impact factor of 4.2 and publishes mainly empirical studies.

2. Impact factors in mathematics are usually much lower than in medicine.

Common phrases

high impact factor · journal impact factor · an impact factor of · high-impact journal

open access

noun

Meaning

A way of publishing in which research articles are free online for anyone to read, download and often reuse, without a subscription.

Where you use it

Common types are gold open access, where the publisher makes the article free and may charge authors an article processing charge (APC), and green open access, where the author places a version in a repository. As an adjective: an open-access journal.

Examples

1. All articles in this journal are published open access under a CC BY license.

2. Our funder requires us to make the paper open access.

Common phrases

open-access journal · publish open access · gold open access · green open access · open access fee

corresponding author

noun

Meaning

The author who handles communication with the journal during submission and review, and whose contact details appear on the published article for readers' questions.

Where you use it

Marked with an asterisk or an envelope symbol on the article. The corresponding author submits the manuscript, receives the editor's decisions and approves the proofs on behalf of all co-authors. It is not necessarily the first author.

Examples

1. As corresponding author, you will receive all emails from the editorial office.

2. Questions about the dataset should be sent to the corresponding author.

Common phrases

act as corresponding author · the corresponding author's email · contact the corresponding author · first and corresponding author

publish or perish

idiom

Meaning

An expression describing the pressure on academics to publish frequently in order to keep their jobs, get promoted or win funding.

Where you use it

Used critically in discussions about academic careers, research quality and well-being. People say they work in a publish-or-perish culture or system. It is often linked to debates about the quantity versus the quality of research.

Examples

1. Many early-career researchers feel trapped in a publish or perish culture.

2. The panel discussed how publish or perish pressures can harm research quality.

Common phrases

publish-or-perish culture · publish-or-perish pressure · a publish-or-perish system

editor

noun

Meaning

A person responsible for deciding which manuscripts a journal or book publishes and for managing the peer review process.

Where you use it

Journals have an editor-in-chief and associate or handling editors who choose reviewers and make decisions. Authors write a cover letter to the editor and receive a decision letter from them. In edited books, the editor collects and revises chapters by different authors.

Examples

1. The editor sent our paper to three reviewers.

2. Dear Editor, please find attached our manuscript for consideration in your journal.

Common phrases

editor-in-chief · associate editor · handling editor · letter to the editor · edited by

co-author

noun

Meaning

One of two or more people who write a paper or book together and share responsibility for its content; also used as a verb.

Where you use it

All co-authors should have contributed substantially and approved the final version; many journals ask for a contribution statement, often based on the CRediT roles. As a verb: 'She co-authored the paper with her supervisor.' Also spelled coauthor.

Examples

1. All co-authors must approve the manuscript before submission.

2. She has co-authored three papers with researchers in Germany.

Common phrases

co-author a paper · list as a co-author · co-author approval · lead author and co-authors

cover letter

noun

Meaning

A short letter to a journal editor sent with a manuscript, explaining what the paper is about and why it suits the journal.

Where you use it

It usually gives the title and article type, summarizes the main contribution, confirms that the work is original and not under consideration elsewhere, and declares any conflicts of interest. A weak cover letter can contribute to a desk rejection.

Examples

1. In the cover letter, explain in two sentences why your study matters to the journal's readers.

2. We state in the cover letter that the manuscript has not been submitted elsewhere.

Common phrases

write a cover letter · cover letter to the editor · submit with a cover letter · cover letter template

major revision

noun

Meaning

An editorial decision asking the authors to make substantial changes, such as new analyses or a rewritten section, before the paper can be reconsidered.

Where you use it

Typical decisions are accept, minor revision, major revision and reject. After a major revision, the revised paper usually goes back to the same reviewers. Authors resubmit it with a point-by-point response to reviewers, often within one to three months.

Examples

1. Good news: the paper came back with major revisions, not a rejection.

2. Reviewer 1 recommended a major revision because the sample was not described clearly.

Common phrases

receive a major revision · minor revision · major revisions required · recommend a major revision

first author

noun

Meaning

The person whose name appears first in a paper's author list, usually the one who did most of the work and wrote the first draft.

Where you use it

Conventions differ by field. In the life sciences, the first author usually did the main work and the last author leads the lab; in mathematics and economics, names are often in alphabetical order. Doctoral students are often expected to publish as first author.

Examples

1. She is first author on two papers and co-author on five.

2. We agreed at the start that the PhD student would be first author.

Common phrases

first-author publication · first-authored paper · shared first authorship · last author

response to reviewers

noun

Meaning

A document sent with a revised manuscript that answers each reviewer comment and explains what changes were made and where.

Where you use it

Usually written point by point: quote each comment, reply politely and give the page or line number of the change. If you disagree, explain why with evidence rather than ignoring the comment. Also called a response letter or rebuttal letter.

Examples

1. In our response to reviewers, we addressed all 23 comments point by point.

2. Keep your response to reviewers polite, even when a comment seems unfair.

Common phrases

point-by-point response · response letter · address a comment · rebuttal letter

preprint

noun

Meaning

A version of a research paper shared publicly online before it has been peer reviewed and published in a journal.

Where you use it

Common preprint servers include arXiv (physics, mathematics, computer science), bioRxiv, medRxiv, SSRN and PsyArXiv. Preprints spread findings quickly but have not been checked by reviewers, so cite them with care. Most journals accept papers that were posted as preprints, but check the policy.

Examples

1. We posted a preprint on arXiv while the paper was under review.

2. This claim is based on a preprint that has not yet been peer reviewed.

Common phrases

post a preprint · preprint server · cite a preprint · preprint version

predatory journal

noun

Meaning

A publication that charges authors fees and promises fast publication but does not provide real peer review or editorial quality control.

Where you use it

Warning signs include unsolicited emails inviting submissions, a very broad scope, guaranteed acceptance within days and fake impact metrics. Publishing in one can damage a researcher's reputation, and such papers may not count in academic evaluations. Resources such as Think. Check. Submit. help authors check journals.

Examples

1. I received another email from a predatory journal promising publication in 48 hours.

2. Check the journal's indexing and editorial board to avoid predatory journals.

Common phrases

predatory publisher · avoid predatory journals · predatory conference · spot a predatory journal

indexed

adjective

Meaning

Listed and regularly covered in a major citation database such as Web of Science or Scopus, which is often treated as a sign of journal quality.

Where you use it

Academics in Turkey often ask whether a journal is indexed in SSCI, SCI-Expanded, AHCI, ESCI, Scopus or TR Dizin, because appointment and incentive rules depend on it. Within an index, journals in each field are ranked into quartiles, Q1 being the top 25 percent.

Examples

1. Is this journal indexed in Scopus, or does it only appear in Google Scholar?

2. Our faculty only rewards papers in journals indexed in the Web of Science.

Common phrases

indexed in Scopus · SSCI-indexed journal · indexed journal · Q1 journal

conference

noun

Meaning

A formal meeting, often lasting several days, where researchers present their work, listen to talks and discuss ideas with others in their field.

Where you use it

Researchers attend, organize or present at a conference. Academic conferences include paper sessions, poster sessions and keynote talks. Congress, symposium and workshop name related events of different sizes and formats.

Examples

1. Are you going to the annual conference in Vienna this year?

2. She presented her preliminary findings at an international conference.

Common phrases

attend a conference · present at a conference · international conference · conference paper · conference proceedings

call for papers

noun

Meaning

An announcement inviting researchers to submit abstracts or papers for a conference, a journal special issue or an edited book, usually with topics and a deadline.

Where you use it

Often shortened to CFP. Calls for papers are shared on mailing lists, society websites and social media. Researchers respond to a CFP by submitting an abstract before the deadline, and organizers issue or extend a call.

Examples

1. The call for papers closes on 30 November, so we need to finish our abstract this week.

2. The journal has issued a call for papers for a special issue on climate education.

Usage note

The plural is calls for papers: the -s goes on the first word.

Common phrases

issue a call for papers · respond to a call for papers · CFP deadline · open call for papers

keynote

noun

Meaning

The main talk at a conference, given by an invited and usually well-known speaker, often to all participants at the start of a day.

Where you use it

Used as a noun (the keynote) and in compounds: keynote speaker, keynote address, keynote lecture. Keynote speakers are invited by the organizers and usually do not go through abstract review.

Examples

1. The keynote on the second day was about open science.

2. We are delighted to announce the keynote speakers for this year's conference.

Common phrases

keynote speaker · keynote address · keynote lecture · deliver a keynote · give the keynote

Q&A

abbreviation

Meaning

Short for 'questions and answers': the part of a talk or session when the audience asks questions and the speaker replies.

Where you use it

Pronounced 'Q and A'. Conference talks are usually followed by a few minutes of Q&A, and the session chair opens the floor and keeps time. Speakers often prepare for likely questions and may say 'That's a great question' to gain thinking time.

Examples

1. Each presentation is 15 minutes, followed by five minutes of Q&A.

2. During the Q&A, someone asked about the size of our sample.

Common phrases

Q&A session · open the floor for questions · take questions · time for Q&A

poster session

noun

Meaning

A part of a conference where researchers display their work on large printed posters and talk informally with people who come to read them.

Where you use it

Common for early-stage work and student researchers. Presenters stand by their poster and give a short summary to visitors. Submitted abstracts may be accepted for an oral presentation or a poster presentation.

Examples

1. My abstract was accepted for the poster session on Thursday afternoon.

2. I had some great conversations at the poster session, including one with a possible co-author.

Common phrases

present a poster · poster presentation · best poster award · poster board

proceedings

noun

Meaning

A published collection of the papers or abstracts presented at a conference, issued as a book, an online volume or a special journal issue.

Where you use it

Always plural in this sense: conference proceedings. In computer science and engineering, papers in peer-reviewed proceedings are major publications; in many other fields they count for less than journal articles. They are cited with the conference name, place and year.

Examples

1. The full paper will be published in the conference proceedings.

2. Are the proceedings indexed in Scopus?

Common phrases

conference proceedings · published in the proceedings · proceedings paper · full-text proceedings

present

verb

Meaning

To give a talk about your research to an audience, or to show information such as results in a particular form.

Where you use it

At conferences you present a paper, a poster or your findings, usually in a 15–20 minute slot followed by questions. In writing, results are presented in tables and figures. The speaker is the presenter, and the talk is a presentation.

Examples

1. I'm presenting a paper on refugee education at the conference in Lisbon.

2. The results are presented in Table 3.

Usage note

The verb is stressed on the second syllable (/prɪˈzent/); the noun and adjective are stressed on the first (/ˈpreznt/).

Common phrases

present a paper · present findings · present at a conference · present a poster · as presented in Table 1

panel

noun

Meaning

A group of experts who discuss a topic in front of an audience, or a conference session in which several speakers present related papers.

Where you use it

Researchers sit on, join or propose a panel, and a moderator or chair leads it. In the humanities and social sciences, scholars often submit a full panel proposal with three or four papers. Panel also means an expert group, such as a review or funding panel.

Examples

1. I've been invited to join a panel on digital archives at the conference.

2. Our panel proposal included three papers on migration and education.

Common phrases

panel discussion · sit on a panel · panel proposal · panel session · expert panel

session chair

noun

Meaning

The person who runs a conference session by introducing the speakers, keeping time and leading the questions afterward.

Where you use it

Session chairs often hold up cards showing five minutes, two minutes and 'stop'. They may ask the first question if the audience is quiet. Chair is also a verb: 'Professor Aksoy will chair the afternoon session.'

Examples

1. The session chair reminded each speaker to finish within 15 minutes.

2. Would you be willing to serve as session chair for the panel on language policy?

Common phrases

chair a session · serve as session chair · thank the chair · co-chair

workshop

noun

Meaning

A short, interactive meeting or training session where a small group discusses work in progress or practices a specific skill.

Where you use it

Universities run workshops on academic writing, statistics or grant applications. In some fields, especially computer science, workshops are small events attached to a main conference, with their own calls for papers and proceedings. People attend, run, organize or give a workshop.

Examples

1. The graduate school offers a free workshop on writing a literature review.

2. Our paper was accepted at a workshop co-located with the main conference.

Common phrases

attend a workshop · run a workshop · writing workshop · workshop paper

plagiarism

noun

Meaning

Presenting someone else's words, ideas or work as your own without properly acknowledging the source.

Where you use it

A serious academic offense that can lead to failed assignments, retracted articles or revoked degrees. Universities and journals check submissions with similarity software such as Turnitin or iThenticate. You commit, detect or are accused of plagiarism; the verb is plagiarize.

Examples

1. Copying a paragraph and changing a few words is still plagiarism.

2. The journal retracted the article after plagiarism was detected in the introduction.

Usage note

A similarity score is not the same as plagiarism: properly quoted and cited text also raises the score.

Common phrases

commit plagiarism · detect plagiarism · accusation of plagiarism · plagiarism checker · avoid plagiarism

informed consent

noun

Meaning

A participant's voluntary agreement to take part in research after being told about its purpose, procedures, risks and their right to withdraw.

Where you use it

Required by ethics committees for research with people. Researchers obtain or seek informed consent, usually with an information sheet and a signed consent form. With children, consent comes from parents and assent from the child.

Examples

1. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection.

2. Without informed consent, the interviews cannot be used in the thesis.

Common phrases

obtain informed consent · informed consent form · written informed consent · give informed consent

ethics approval

noun

Meaning

Official permission from an ethics committee or review board confirming that a study involving people or animals meets ethical standards before it begins.

Where you use it

Researchers apply for, obtain or receive ethics approval, and articles state the committee's name and approval number. In the US the body is usually an Institutional Review Board (IRB); in the UK and Europe, a research ethics committee.

Examples

1. Ethics approval was granted by the university's Social Sciences Ethics Committee (No. 2023/45).

2. You cannot start the interviews until you receive ethics approval.

Usage note

British English often says ethical approval; both forms are widely understood.

Common phrases

obtain ethics approval · apply for ethics approval · ethics committee · ethics approval number

confidentiality

noun

Meaning

The duty to keep participants' personal information private and to store and report data so that people cannot be identified.

Where you use it

Promised in information sheets and consent forms: 'All data will be treated with strict confidentiality.' Related terms are anonymity (no one can link the data to a person) and pseudonym (an invented name used in reports).

Examples

1. To protect confidentiality, all names were replaced with pseudonyms.

2. Participants were assured of confidentiality and told they could withdraw at any time.

Usage note

Confidentiality and anonymity are not the same: interview data can be confidential but not anonymous, because the researcher knows who said what.

Common phrases

ensure confidentiality · maintain confidentiality · strict confidentiality · confidentiality agreement

academic integrity

noun

Meaning

The commitment to honesty, fairness and responsibility in study and research, including citing sources, reporting data truthfully and doing your own work.

Where you use it

Universities have academic integrity policies and offices. Breaches include plagiarism, cheating, fabricating or falsifying data and unauthorized help. The spread of AI writing tools has made academic integrity a frequent topic in course guidelines.

Examples

1. All students must complete an online module on academic integrity in their first term.

2. Submitting the same essay for two courses is a breach of academic integrity.

Common phrases

academic integrity policy · breach of academic integrity · uphold academic integrity · academic integrity office

anonymity

noun

Meaning

The condition in which participants cannot be identified from the data or the published report, sometimes not even by the researcher.

Where you use it

Ethics forms ask how anonymity will be protected. Anonymous surveys collect no names; in interviews, researchers use pseudonyms and remove identifying details. Anonymity differs from confidentiality, where the researcher knows who said what but does not reveal it.

Examples

1. To protect anonymity, all participants were given pseudonyms.

2. Anonymity was guaranteed: the survey stored no names or IP addresses.

Common phrases

protect anonymity · guarantee anonymity · anonymity and confidentiality · ensure participant anonymity

conflict of interest

noun

Meaning

A situation in which a researcher's financial, professional or personal interests could influence, or appear to influence, their research or judgment.

Where you use it

Journals require authors to declare any conflict of interest, such as funding from a company whose product they test. Reviewers and editors should also decline papers by close colleagues. If there is none, authors write 'The authors declare no conflict of interest.' Also called competing interests.

Examples

1. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

2. I declined to review the paper because of a conflict of interest: the first author was my former student.

Common phrases

declare a conflict of interest · potential conflict of interest · conflict of interest statement · competing interests

fabrication

noun

Meaning

Inventing data, results or sources and reporting them as if they were real; one of the most serious forms of research misconduct.

Where you use it

Fabrication is usually listed with falsification (changing or selectively reporting real data) and plagiarism, often abbreviated FFP. Proven cases can lead to retraction and dismissal. The verb is fabricate: 'He fabricated interview data.'

Examples

1. The investigation found clear evidence of data fabrication in four papers.

2. Fabrication of participant responses is a serious breach of research ethics.

Common phrases

data fabrication · fabrication and falsification · allegations of fabrication · fabricated data

self-plagiarism

noun

Meaning

Reusing your own previously published text, data or ideas in a new work without citing the earlier publication.

Where you use it

Includes duplicate publication (the same paper in two journals), submitting the same assignment twice and salami slicing (splitting one study into many small papers). Reusing parts of your thesis in a journal article is usually allowed if you cite it, but check the journal's policy.

Examples

1. The similarity report flagged self-plagiarism from the author's 2021 conference paper.

2. To avoid self-plagiarism, cite your earlier article and rewrite the methods description.

Common phrases

avoid self-plagiarism · duplicate publication · text recycling · salami slicing

retraction

noun

Meaning

The formal withdrawal of a published article by a journal because its results are unreliable or because of misconduct or serious error.

Where you use it

The article stays online but is marked RETRACTED, with a notice explaining why. Journals usually follow COPE guidelines. Smaller problems are fixed with a correction (an erratum or corrigendum). The Retraction Watch database tracks retracted papers. The verb is retract.

Examples

1. The journal issued a retraction after the authors could not provide the original data.

2. Always check whether a paper has had a retraction before you cite it.

Common phrases

retraction notice · issue a retraction · retracted article · lead to retraction

supervisor

noun

Meaning

An academic who guides a student's thesis or research project, giving feedback on plans, drafts and progress.

Where you use it

The usual British term; American universities more often say advisor (or adviser). Students meet, consult and send drafts to their supervisor, and a co-supervisor or second supervisor may share the role.

Examples

1. I meet my supervisor every two weeks to discuss my progress.

2. My supervisor suggested cutting the second chapter in half.

Usage note

Outside universities, supervisor usually means a manager at work, not a thesis advisor.

Common phrases

thesis supervisor · meet your supervisor · co-supervisor · feedback from the supervisor

PhD

abbreviation

Meaning

Doctor of Philosophy: the highest university research degree, awarded after several years of original research and a thesis.

Where you use it

Awarded in almost every field, not only philosophy. People do, start or complete a PhD and are PhD students or PhD candidates. British English usually writes PhD; American English also uses Ph.D.

Examples

1. She is doing a PhD in molecular biology at a university in Ankara.

2. After finishing his PhD, he applied for postdoctoral positions abroad.

Common phrases

do a PhD · PhD student · PhD candidate · PhD thesis · PhD program

postgraduate

adjective

Meaning

Relating to study after a first university degree, such as a master's or PhD; as a noun, a student at this level.

Where you use it

Mainly British usage: postgraduate student, postgraduate study, postgraduate research. American English says graduate instead (graduate student, graduate school). Students working toward a bachelor's degree are undergraduates.

Examples

1. The university offers postgraduate programs in law, engineering and education.

2. Most postgraduate students in our department also work as research assistants.

Usage note

Turkish speakers often think a 'graduate student' is someone who has already graduated. In American English it means a master's or PhD student.

Common phrases

postgraduate student · postgraduate study · postgraduate research · postgraduate degree

research proposal

noun

Meaning

A document that describes a planned study, including its aims, research questions, background, methods, timeline and expected contribution.

Where you use it

Written when applying to PhD programs, when a thesis topic needs approval and in grant applications. Students write, submit, revise and defend a research proposal, and committees approve or reject it.

Examples

1. Applicants must include a 2,000-word research proposal with their application.

2. My research proposal was approved, so I can start collecting data.

Common phrases

write a research proposal · submit a research proposal · defend a research proposal · thesis proposal

thesis defense

noun

Meaning

An oral examination in which a candidate presents a thesis and answers questions from a committee of examiners, who then decide the result.

Where you use it

American usage; British English spells it defence and usually calls the PhD exam a viva (viva voce). Candidates prepare for and pass a thesis defense, and the committee may accept the thesis, ask for corrections or reject it.

Examples

1. Her thesis defense is scheduled for 14 May, and two external examiners will attend.

2. He passed his thesis defense with only minor corrections.

Common phrases

pass the defense · defense committee · public defense · prepare for the defense · defense date

grant

noun

Meaning

A sum of money given by a government body, foundation or university to pay for a research project, often after a competitive application.

Where you use it

Researchers apply for, win or are awarded a grant, and they write a grant proposal or application. Funded articles state the grant number in the acknowledgments. Major funders include national research councils, the EU's Horizon Europe program and private foundations.

Examples

1. This research was supported by a grant from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK).

2. She spent most of the autumn writing a grant proposal.

Usage note

A grant usually funds a research project; a scholarship pays for a student's studies.

Common phrases

apply for a grant · win a grant · research grant · grant proposal · grant number

thesis committee

noun

Meaning

A group of academics, including the supervisor, who guide and assess a graduate student's thesis and usually examine it at the final defense.

Where you use it

In the US, the committee follows the student from the proposal to the defense. Turkish doctoral programs have a thesis monitoring committee that meets regularly and a defense jury that includes its members. In the UK, the thesis is examined by internal and external examiners in an oral exam called a viva.

Examples

1. I need to send the draft to my thesis committee two weeks before the meeting.

2. One member of the thesis committee asked for an additional analysis.

Common phrases

thesis committee meeting · committee member · form a committee · committee approval

research assistant

noun

Meaning

A person, often a graduate student, employed to help with a research project; in Turkey, also the title of early-career academic staff.

Where you use it

In the US and UK, a research assistant (RA) is often paid from a grant to collect data, run analyses or manage literature; a teaching assistant (TA) helps with courses. The Turkish title Araştırma Görevlisi (Arş. Gör.) is usually translated as Research Assistant in English CVs and affiliations.

Examples

1. She works as a research assistant on a three-year project on coastal erosion.

2. Two trained research assistants coded the interview data independently.

Common phrases

work as a research assistant · graduate research assistant · research assistantship · hire a research assistant

faculty

noun

Meaning

In American English, the teaching and research staff of a university; in British English, also a group of related departments, such as the Faculty of Arts.

Where you use it

Common phrases: faculty member, faculty position, full-time faculty, faculty and students. In the US, academic divisions are usually called schools or colleges, so 'the faculty' almost always means the people. Like staff, it can take a singular or plural verb.

Examples

1. The department has 24 full-time faculty and about 300 graduate students.

2. She joined the Faculty of Education at a university in Ankara as an assistant professor.

Usage note

A false friend in US contexts: a faculty member is a university teacher, not someone who belongs to a 'fakülte'. For the unit, Americans usually say school or college.

Common phrases

faculty member · faculty position · Faculty of Medicine · faculty and students · full-time faculty

qualifying exam

noun

Meaning

A major examination that doctoral students must pass, usually after coursework, to show they are ready to begin their dissertation research.

Where you use it

Names vary: qualifying exam (quals), comprehensive exam (comps) or preliminary exam (prelims). It may be written, oral or both. In the US, students who pass often become PhD candidates. In Turkey, the doctoral qualifying exam has written and oral parts.

Examples

1. I'm taking my qualifying exam in May, so I'm reading nonstop.

2. Students who fail the qualifying exam may retake it once.

Usage note

The official Turkish name is 'yeterlik sınavı', not 'yeterlilik sınavı'.

Common phrases

pass the qualifying exam · qualifying exam committee · comprehensive exams · prepare for quals

coursework

noun

Meaning

The courses a student must complete as part of a degree, or, in British English, the assessed assignments done during a course rather than in exams.

Where you use it

In graduate programs, students usually finish coursework before the qualifying exam and thesis stage. In the UK, a module may be assessed 50% by coursework (essays, reports, projects) and 50% by exam. It is uncountable: 'a lot of coursework', not 'courseworks'.

Examples

1. I finished my coursework in the first two years and then started my dissertation.

2. This module is assessed entirely by coursework, with no final exam.

Common phrases

complete coursework · coursework requirements · assessed by coursework · coursework deadline