Academic English & Research Vocabulary: 370 Key English Terms

To show or point to something, especially to show that something is probably true based on data or evidence.

An abbreviation of the Latin exempli gratia, meaning 'for example'; it introduces one or more examples from a larger group.

An abbreviation of the Latin id est, meaning 'that is'; it introduces a clarification or a more exact restatement of what came before.

A general idea or principle, especially one that is defined and used in a particular theory or field of study.

A particular way of thinking about or dealing with a problem, topic or research question.

A possible effect or consequence of research findings for theory, practice or policy; also something suggested without being said directly.

To show clearly, with evidence or examples, that something is true or exists.

A formal linking word used to add another point that supports or extends what has just been said.

Something accepted as true without being proved, which a theory, method or statistical test depends on.

A fact, event or situation that can be observed and studied, especially one that researchers want to explain.

To consist of or be made up of particular parts; formal writing uses it to describe the parts of a sample, text or structure.

In the same order as the things just mentioned; used to match two lists of items without repeating each pair.

A linking word that introduces a contrast with the previous statement, often a result, view or fact that the reader may not expect.

A formal linking word showing that what follows is a result or logical conclusion of what has just been stated.

To study a question, problem or situation carefully and systematically in order to discover facts or explain how something works.

To find, recognize or name something, such as a pattern, cause, problem or group, after looking at evidence carefully.

To judge the quality, value, effectiveness or importance of something, usually by using clear criteria or evidence.

The situation, background or conditions in which something happens or is studied, which help explain its meaning.

One of the things that influences a situation or result, such as income, motivation or class size.

A linking phrase used to show a clear difference between two things, groups or results that are being compared.

To show that something is true or exists by providing evidence, or to create something that lasts, such as a link, method or field of study.

To study a topic in an open, flexible way in order to understand it better, especially when little is known about it.

To draw special attention to something so that readers notice its importance.

Standards or conditions used to judge, select or decide something; the singular form is criterion.

The range of topics, people, places or time periods that a study, article or thesis covers.

Happening or coming after something else, such as a later study, stage or chapter.

Real or basic but not immediately obvious, such as a cause, mechanism or assumption that explains what can be seen.

To form or make up something, or to be considered as something, such as a breach, a risk or evidence.

To say or believe that something is caused by a particular factor, or that a statement or work comes from a particular person.

An idea, belief or concept, especially one that is discussed, questioned or used as the basis of an argument.

To get or develop something from a source, such as data from records, themes from interviews or a hypothesis from theory.

Stated clearly and directly, so that nothing has to be guessed; the opposite of implicit.

An explanation that mainly reports features or events in detail, without much interpretation, evaluation, or argument.

formal writing used in higher education and research, built on clear structure, evidence, careful wording, and discipline-appropriate style

The language practices, styles, and ways of building knowledge that are used in academic speaking and writing.

A style of language that is careful, impersonal, and appropriate for academic, professional, or official communication.

A word or expression with a precise meaning in a particular field, often unclear to readers outside that field.

Support an account with independent evidence.

Provide evidence that gives a claim a firm basis.

Set out the boundaries or main features of something clearly.

Question an idea treated as simple or unproblematic.

Develop a way of understanding a phenomenon through concepts.

Separate combined data into component groups.

Treat different ideas or categories as if they were the same.

Estimate beyond the observed range using an existing pattern.

Especially noticeable or relevant to the matter being discussed.

Dependent on a condition that might not hold.

Appropriate in degree or size relative to something else.

Not strong or clear enough to settle the question.

Explaining observations with relatively few assumptions or elements.

Careful, systematic study of a subject in order to discover new facts, test ideas or reach new conclusions.

A clear, focused question that a study is designed to answer; it guides the choice of methods, data and analysis.

A testable statement that predicts a relationship or outcome, which a study then supports or fails to support with evidence.

The overall approach and reasoning behind how a study is done, including the choice of design, methods, data and analysis, and the reasons for those choices.

Describing research that studies experiences, meanings and behavior through words, images or observation rather than numbers, often with smaller groups of people.

Describing research that collects numerical data and uses statistics to measure, compare or test relationships, often with larger samples.

The smaller group of people, items or texts selected from a larger population for a study, so that conclusions can be drawn about that population.

A person who takes part in a study, for example by answering a questionnaire, being interviewed or completing an experiment.

A set of written questions given to many people to collect information about their opinions, experiences or behavior.

An in-depth study of one particular person, group, organization, event or place, used to understand it in its real context.

To do or complete a planned task, such as an experiment, survey, analysis or piece of research.

The extent to which a study or instrument really measures what it claims to measure and supports the conclusions drawn from it.

The extent to which a measurement or method gives consistent results when it is repeated or used by different researchers.

A research design that combines qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis in one study to answer a question more fully.

Any characteristic, such as age, income or test score, that can take different values and is measured, controlled or changed in a study.

A research method that collects information from many people, usually by asking the same set of questions in a questionnaire or interview.

The process of gathering information for a study, for example through questionnaires, interviews, observations, tests or existing records.

The whole group of people, cases or items that a study is about and from which a smaller sample is usually drawn.

A specific, achievable step that a study sets out to complete in order to reach its broader aim.

Based on observation, measurement or experience rather than only on theory or logical reasoning.

A group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the treatment being tested, so that their results can be compared with those who do.

An interview that follows a prepared list of questions but lets the researcher change the order and ask follow-up questions.

A small trial version of a study, carried out before the main study to test the instruments, procedures and timing.

A study that collects data from the same people or cases repeatedly over a long period in order to observe change.

A way of choosing a sample in which every member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected.

A guided group discussion in which a small number of participants talk about a topic so that researchers can study their shared and differing views.

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to other people, places or situations beyond the sample studied.

A set of shared beliefs about reality, knowledge and methods that shapes how researchers in a field ask questions and do research.

Using more than one data source, method, researcher or theory to study the same question, so that findings can be checked against each other.

The main purpose of a study, stating what the researcher wants to examine, explain, compare, or understand.

A specific way of collecting or analyzing information in order to answer a research question.

A prepared list of interview topics and questions used to keep data collection focused and reasonably consistent across participants.

The procedure used to choose cases, people, or items from a larger group for a study.

The overall plan for how a study will answer its research question, including methods, sample, measures, and timing.

How well a measure represents the theoretical concept it is intended to capture.

How well study conditions or tasks reflect relevant real-life situations.

How well a study supports its causal conclusions without alternative explanations.

Inviting participants to comment on researchers' records or interpretations.

Examining cases that challenge an emerging explanation.

Choosing further cases in response to an emerging theory.

Selecting cases because they have characteristics relevant to the research question.

Recruiting participants through referrals from existing participants.

Critical examination of how the researcher shapes the research process.

A researcher's social position and relationship to the setting being studied.

Detailed contextual description that explains the meaning of actions in a setting.

The point where further data yield little relevant new information for the study's purpose.

The kind of entity about which a study draws conclusions.

The kind of entity on which measurements or observations are collected.

A study evaluating an intervention without random assignment to conditions.

A study using an externally occurring event or allocation to investigate causal effects.

Varying the order of study conditions across participants to reduce order effects.

A measure checking whether an experimental manipulation changed what it was intended to change.

An approach that develops theory through iterative data collection and analysis.

Research connecting the researcher's personal experience with wider cultural processes.

Systematic analysis of communication using explicit categories or coding procedures.

Research carried out through cycles of action and reflection to improve local practice.

Purposively selecting cases that differ widely on characteristics relevant to a study.

The point where further data no longer develop the properties and relationships of an emerging theory.

An item or task used to assess whether a participant is attending to study instructions or content.

Detailed study of how people organize interaction, including turn-taking and responses.

Action research in which affected people help shape and conduct the inquiry and action.

Facts, numbers, recordings, texts or observations collected in a study and then analyzed to answer a research question.

The results or information that a study discovers after its data have been collected and analyzed.

Detailed examination of data or a text in order to identify patterns, relationships or meaning, often using statistical or qualitative techniques.

In statistics, describing a result unlikely to be due to chance alone at a chosen level such as p < .05; in general use, large or important enough to matter.

To decide what something means or what is true after thinking carefully about the evidence or results.

A statistical relationship between two variables in which they tend to change together, either in the same or in opposite directions.

A qualitative method for finding, organizing and interpreting patterns of meaning, called themes, across interviews, texts or other data.

To explain the reason for something; also to form a particular part or proportion of a total.

To explain what data, results or a text mean, especially by connecting them to theory, earlier research or the research question.

A collection of related data organized for analysis, such as survey responses in a spreadsheet or a national statistics file.

The average value of a set of numbers, found by adding them together and dividing the total by how many numbers there are.

A number that shows how spread out the values in a dataset are around the mean; a small value means most scores are close to the average.

Numbers and tables that summarize the main features of a dataset, such as frequencies, percentages, means, ranges and standard deviations.

A probability showing how likely results at least as extreme as yours would be if there were really no effect, that is, if the null hypothesis were true.

In qualitative research, the process of labeling parts of the data, such as sentences in interviews, with short codes that describe their meaning.

A general direction in which something is changing or developing over time, such as a rise in scores or a fall in enrollment.

To write down exactly what was said in a recorded interview, focus group or conversation so that it can be analyzed.

a factor included in a study or analysis so its influence is accounted for when examining the main relationship of interest

A structured set of categories or labels used to classify data during qualitative or mixed-method analysis.

A document that lists variable names, codes, categories, or themes and explains what each one means in a dataset or analysis.

The examination of data using statistical methods to describe patterns, test ideas, and estimate relationships or differences.

Systematic distortion in the answers people give.

A tendency to give answers that present oneself favorably to others.

Systematic error arising from differences or inaccuracies in remembering past events.

A chart showing study effect estimates and their uncertainty, often with a pooled estimate.

A plot of study estimates against precision or study size used to explore asymmetry.

Drawing conclusions about individuals from relationships observed for groups.

Treating dependent observations as if they were independent replicates.

A researcher's working note developing an interpretation or analytic decision.

Coding qualitative data with participants' own words as labels.

Connecting categories and their properties during qualitative analysis.

Examining how results change when assumptions, inputs or analytic choices are varied.

A range expressing uncertainty about a future observation or effect under a model.

Integrating categories around a central category to develop a theoretical account.

A critical summary of what has already been published on a topic, showing the main ideas, debates and gaps that a new study responds to.

The body of published research and writing on a particular subject; in academic use it does not mean novels and poetry.

A question, group, context or problem that existing studies have not yet addressed well, which a new study aims to fill.

The theory or set of connected theories that a study uses to explain its problem, shape its questions and interpret its findings.

Describing a work, study or idea that was highly original and has strongly influenced later research in a field.

To combine ideas and findings from several sources into a connected whole that shows patterns, agreements and differences, rather than summarizing each source separately.

To use ideas, knowledge, experience or data from a particular source to support or build your own work.

To use earlier work, results or ideas as a foundation and develop them further in a new study.

An original document or record created at the time of the events or by the people who did the research, such as a letter, archive file, dataset or original study.

A text that describes, summarizes, analyzes or interprets primary sources or other people's research, such as a review article, textbook or biography.

A review that uses a clear, pre-planned and repeatable method to find, select and evaluate all relevant studies on a specific question.

An online collection of records for journal articles, books and other publications that researchers can search to find literature.

A statistical method that combines the results of many independent studies on the same question to produce an overall estimate of an effect.

The whole collection of published research on a particular topic, considered as a single source of knowledge.

General agreement among a group, such as researchers in a field, about a fact, explanation or course of action.

A careful evaluation of a theory, study or text that discusses its strengths and weaknesses; also used as a verb.

A planned, transparent way of finding sources by using clear databases, keywords, limits, and selection steps.

The planned method for finding relevant sources, including databases, keywords, filters, and decisions about what to include.

an academic article that summarizes, compares, and evaluates published studies on a topic instead of reporting one new experiment

A type of literature review that maps the size, range, and nature of research on a topic.

The conditions that studies, participants, or sources must meet to be included in a review or research project.

The predefined conditions used to leave out studies, sources, or participants that do not fit the scope of a review or study.

A literature review that summarizes and discusses existing studies in a descriptive, interpretive way rather than through a strict systematic procedure.

The full set of relevant findings, studies, and data considered together when evaluating a question or claim.

A review that evaluates sources by analyzing their strengths, weaknesses, methods, and significance, not just summarizing them.

Research-related material distributed outside conventional commercial or academic publishing channels.

Finding sources by following citation links between publications.

An authorized set of indexing terms used consistently in a database.

A search requiring terms to occur within a specified distance in a record.

Systematic manual checking of source contents to locate relevant studies.

Structured evaluation of a study's trustworthiness and relevance.

A review that synthesizes findings from existing research reviews.

A synthesis examining how and why interventions work in particular contexts.

A systematic review kept current through planned ongoing updates.

An evidence review that uses explicit methodological shortcuts to meet a shorter deadline.

A review that combines diverse empirical or theoretical sources to develop a fuller understanding of a topic.

A service through which one library obtains material from another for a user.

To mention a source, such as a book or article, in your writing to show where an idea, fact or quotation comes from.

A reference to a source in a piece of writing; also each time another publication refers to a work, counted as a measure of its influence.

The list at the end of a paper or thesis giving full details of every source cited in the text, arranged in the order a citation style requires.

To express an author's idea in your own words and sentence structure while keeping the original meaning; the source still needs a citation.

A short reference inside the main text, such as (Yılmaz, 2021) or a number [3], that points the reader to the full entry in the reference list.

The exact words of a source copied into your text, marked with quotation marks or set as an indented block, and followed by a citation with a page number.

A Latin abbreviation meaning 'and others', used in citations instead of listing all the authors of a work with several authors.

The writing and citation rules of the American Psychological Association, based on author-date citations and widely used in the social sciences, education and psychology.

A list of sources on a subject placed at the end of a work; unlike a reference list, it may include works consulted but not cited.

Digital Object Identifier: a permanent code given to an article, book chapter or dataset so that it can always be found online, even if its web address changes.

A verb such as argue, state, suggest or find that introduces what another author has said, claimed or discovered.

A numbered note at the bottom of a page that gives a source or extra information connected to a point in the main text.

Software that stores your sources, inserts citations into a document and creates the reference list in the required style.

A widely used author–date citation system in which the author's surname and year appear in the text, with full details in an alphabetical reference list.

A citation of a source you have not read yourself but know about only because another author described or quoted it.

A Latin abbreviation of ibidem ('in the same place'), used in a note to refer to the source cited in the note immediately before.

A long quotation set apart from the main text as an indented paragraph, without quotation marks.

The usual ways writers give credit to sources, including when, where, and how citations are used in a text.

the original text that a writer, translator, or researcher uses as the basis for quotation, paraphrase, analysis, or translation

A citation placed in parentheses within the main text, usually giving the author, year, and sometimes page number.

A marker showing that unusual wording or an apparent error belongs to the quoted original.

The first and last pages of a cited work or passage.

A position supported by reasons and evidence, or the line of reasoning that runs through an essay, article or thesis.

Facts, data or findings that show whether a claim or idea is true or likely to be true.

Using cautious language, such as may, might, appear to or suggest, so that a claim is only as strong as the evidence allows.

To state a position and give reasons and evidence to show why it is right; in academic writing it also reports what an author claims.

A statement that something is true, which may or may not yet be supported by enough evidence.

In academic writing, to indicate that something is probably true without proving it; it can also mean to put forward an idea or recommendation.

Partly but not completely; used to limit how strongly a claim is made.

An argument against your own position, which a writer presents fairly and then answers or weakens to make the main argument stronger.

A writer's position or attitude toward a topic or claim, shown through word choice, use of evidence and how strongly ideas are expressed.

A cautious, impersonal way to introduce a point or interpretation without presenting it as a fixed personal opinion.

To accept or admit that something is true or exists, such as a limitation or an opposing view; also to thank people or name sources formally.

Used to say that a statement can reasonably be supported with arguments, even if not everyone would agree with it.

Not certain or final; said of conclusions, explanations or plans that may change when more evidence becomes available.

Reasonable and likely to be true, although not yet proven by clear evidence.

To be likely to behave or happen in a particular way, used to describe a general pattern rather than a rule without exceptions.

A phrase used to draw the reader's attention to a point that is important, surprising or easy to miss.

To state firmly that something is true, often without hedging or before offering full evidence.

To prove with evidence or argument that a claim, theory or accusation is wrong.

A warning or condition that limits how a statement or result should be understood or applied.

Used to say something seems true based on available information, but the speaker is not stating complete certainty.

used to show that a number, amount, time, or measurement is close to the exact value but not completely exact

A modal verb used to show possibility, uncertainty, or a careful claim instead of a strong definite statement.

A modal verb used to show possibility, uncertainty, or cautious interpretation, especially when making limited academic claims.

A modal verb used to express possibility, cautious interpretation, ability in the past, or polite suggestion depending on context.

Reasoning toward a plausible explanation of observed facts.

The possibility of testing a claim in ways that could show it to be false.

A conclusion or remark that does not follow logically from what preceded it.

A boundary deliberately set for a study's scope.

A short summary at the start of an article, thesis or conference submission that states the aim, methods, main findings and conclusion.

A long piece of original research written for a university degree; also the main idea or position that an essay or article argues for.

A long, formal piece of research writing completed for a degree; in the US usually a doctoral thesis, in the UK often a final project for a bachelor's or master's.

An academic article, either published in a journal or presented at a conference; researchers use it as the everyday word for their written studies.

The final section of a thesis or article that sums up the main findings, their meaning and limitations; also a judgment reached after considering evidence.

The section of a research article or thesis that interprets the results, compares them with earlier studies and explains their meaning and limitations.

An early or unfinished version of a piece of writing, such as a chapter or article, that will be revised before it is final.

A weakness or restriction in a study's design, sample or methods that affects how far its findings can be generalized or trusted.

To read a finished text carefully to find and correct mistakes in spelling, grammar, punctuation and formatting before it is submitted.

Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion: the standard four-part structure of empirical research articles, especially in the sciences.

The opening section of an article, thesis or essay, which presents the topic, shows why it matters, identifies a gap and states the aim of the work.

The part of a research article or thesis that explains how the study was carried out, so that readers can judge it and others could repeat it.

One of a small set of words or short phrases listed under an abstract to describe the main topics of a paper and help people find it in databases.

A section at the end of a thesis, report or article that contains extra material, such as questionnaires, interview questions or detailed tables.

A sentence, usually near the end of an essay's introduction, that states the main argument or position the writer will support.

A sentence, usually the first in a paragraph, that states the main idea the rest of the paragraph develops.

Words and phrases that tell readers or listeners how a text or talk is organized and where the argument is going next.

A short section of a thesis, book or article in which the author thanks people and institutions that helped with or funded the work.

The reasons that explain why a study is needed or why a particular decision, such as a method or sample, was made.

The part of a thesis or article that gives context, key concepts, and earlier research needed to understand the study.

The material placed after the main text of a book, thesis, or report, such as appendices, references, and indexes.

a smaller section within a main section of a text, used to separate related points under a broader heading

the first formal page of a thesis, article, or report that shows the title and key identifying details about the work

A smaller heading inside a section that helps organize content into clearer parts for the reader.

A list at the beginning of a document that shows its sections, chapter titles, and page numbers in order.

The pages at the beginning of a thesis or book before the main text, such as the title page and contents.

Language used to guide readers through a text or express the writer's relationship with readers.

Expressing an action or quality as a noun.

Connections between parts of a text created by wording and grammar.

The overall intelligibility and logical connection of ideas in a text.

A short title printed at the top of document pages.

An abstract divided into labeled sections such as methods and results.

A visual summary of the main message of a research paper.

An accessible account of research written for readers without specialist knowledge.

The process in which experts in the same field evaluate a manuscript or grant proposal before it is accepted, revised or rejected.

A regular publication containing research articles in a particular field, usually checked by peer review before publication.

The text of an article or book that an author submits to a journal or publisher before it is accepted and published.

To formally send a piece of work, such as an article, thesis, abstract or application, to the people who will judge it.

An expert who reads a submitted manuscript or proposal and gives the editor an evaluation and a recommendation, such as accept, revise or reject.

An editor's decision that a manuscript cannot be accepted yet but may be reconsidered if the authors make substantial changes and submit it again.

The rejection of a manuscript by the editor before it is sent to reviewers, often because it does not fit the journal's scope or standards.

A yearly measure of how often articles in a journal are cited on average, based on citations in one year to items published in the two previous years.

A way of publishing in which research articles are free online for anyone to read, download and often reuse, without a subscription.

The author who handles communication with the journal during submission and review, and whose contact details appear on the published article for readers' questions.

An expression describing the pressure on academics to publish frequently in order to keep their jobs, get promoted or win funding.

A person responsible for deciding which manuscripts a journal or book publishes and for managing the peer review process.

One of two or more people who write a paper or book together and share responsibility for its content; also used as a verb.

A short letter to a journal editor sent with a manuscript, explaining what the paper is about and why it suits the journal.

An editorial decision asking the authors to make substantial changes, such as new analyses or a rewritten section, before the paper can be reconsidered.

The person whose name appears first in a paper's author list, usually the one who did most of the work and wrote the first draft.

A document sent with a revised manuscript that answers each reviewer comment and explains what changes were made and where.

A version of a research paper shared publicly online before it has been peer reviewed and published in a journal.

A publication that charges authors fees and promises fast publication but does not provide real peer review or editorial quality control.

Listed and regularly covered in a major citation database such as Web of Science or Scopus, which is often treated as a sign of journal quality.

A group of editors and subject experts who help guide a journal's scope, standards, and editorial decisions.

the act of sending a manuscript or document for review, consideration, or assessment, or the item that has been sent

Instructions from a journal or publisher that tell authors how to prepare, format, and submit their work.

An article format in which methods and questions are reviewed before outcomes are known.

The formally published version of a scholarly work maintained by the publisher.

The author version accepted after peer review, before publisher typesetting.

A book-length scholarly study focused on a particular subject.

A book whose chapters by different contributors are organized by one or more editors.

A journal issue devoted to a particular theme or collection.

Peer review in which author and reviewer identities are concealed from each other.

Peer review in which reviewers know the authors but their own identities are concealed.

Peer review that makes identities, reports or parts of the process openly available.

A university or organization's archive for scholarly outputs.

Quantitative study of publications and their citation patterns.

The largest number h for which a publication set contains at least h works with at least h citations each.

Measures of online attention to research beyond traditional scholarly citations.

A separately supplied copy of an article originally published within a larger publication.

Open-access publishing that charges neither readers nor authors for access or publication.

An online service for sharing research manuscripts before formal journal publication.

A formal meeting, often lasting several days, where researchers present their work, listen to talks and discuss ideas with others in their field.

An announcement inviting researchers to submit abstracts or papers for a conference, a journal special issue or an edited book, usually with topics and a deadline.

The main talk at a conference, given by an invited and usually well-known speaker, often to all participants at the start of a day.

Short for 'questions and answers': the part of a talk or session when the audience asks questions and the speaker replies.

A part of a conference where researchers display their work on large printed posters and talk informally with people who come to read them.

A published collection of the papers or abstracts presented at a conference, issued as a book, an online volume or a special journal issue.

To give a talk about your research to an audience, or to show information such as results in a particular form.

A group of experts who discuss a topic in front of an audience, or a conference session in which several speakers present related papers.

The person who runs a conference session by introducing the speakers, keeping time and leading the questions afterward.

A short, interactive meeting or training session where a small group discusses work in progress or practices a specific skill.

A short summary submitted for a conference proposal, presenting the topic, purpose, method, and expected contribution.

A research paper written for presentation at an academic conference and often published in the conference proceedings.

The official schedule of a conference, showing sessions, speakers, times, rooms, and sometimes abstracts or event information.

A conference session intended for all participants rather than a subgroup.

A conference session scheduled at the same time as other sessions.

A very short presentation designed to communicate one or a few central points.

A person assigned to comment critically on presented papers and stimulate discussion.

A conference-associated meeting where doctoral researchers receive feedback and mentoring.

Presenting someone else's words, ideas or work as your own without properly acknowledging the source.

A participant's voluntary agreement to take part in research after being told about its purpose, procedures, risks and their right to withdraw.

Official permission from an ethics committee or review board confirming that a study involving people or animals meets ethical standards before it begins.

The duty to keep participants' personal information private and to store and report data so that people cannot be identified.

The commitment to honesty, fairness and responsibility in study and research, including citing sources, reporting data truthfully and doing your own work.

The condition in which participants cannot be identified from the data or the published report, sometimes not even by the researcher.

A situation in which a researcher's financial, professional or personal interests could influence, or appear to influence, their research or judgment.

Inventing data, results or sources and reporting them as if they were real; one of the most serious forms of research misconduct.

Reusing your own previously published text, data or ideas in a new work without citing the earlier publication.

The formal withdrawal of a published article by a journal because its results are unreliable or because of misconduct or serious error.

principles and standards that guide responsible research, including honesty, participant protection, and proper handling of data

People who take part in a research study by providing data through participation, observation, testing, or interviews.

The protections and freedoms that people in a study should have, such as voluntary participation, privacy, and the right to withdraw.

Recording a research plan before observing relevant outcomes or conducting the planned analysis.

Systematic differences in which studies or findings become available because publication depends on the results.

Listing a person as an author despite insufficient qualifying contribution.

Omitting a person who made a contribution deserving authorship.

A journal notice alerting readers to unresolved serious concerns about a publication.

A statement explaining whether and how the data supporting a paper can be accessed.

Presenting a hypothesis developed after seeing results as if it had been specified beforehand.

Concern that many research findings fail to hold up when studies are repeated or closely tested.

A description of the work each named author contributed to a publication.

An academic who guides a student's thesis or research project, giving feedback on plans, drafts and progress.

Doctor of Philosophy: the highest university research degree, awarded after several years of original research and a thesis.

Relating to study after a first university degree, such as a master's or PhD; as a noun, a student at this level.

A document that describes a planned study, including its aims, research questions, background, methods, timeline and expected contribution.

An oral examination in which a candidate presents a thesis and answers questions from a committee of examiners, who then decide the result.

A sum of money given by a government body, foundation or university to pay for a research project, often after a competitive application.

A group of academics, including the supervisor, who guide and assess a graduate student's thesis and usually examine it at the final defense.

A person, often a graduate student, employed to help with a research project; in Turkey, also the title of early-career academic staff.

In American English, the teaching and research staff of a university; in British English, also a group of related departments, such as the Faculty of Arts.

A major examination that doctoral students must pass, usually after coursework, to show they are ready to begin their dissertation research.

The courses a student must complete as part of a degree, or, in British English, the assessed assignments done during a course rather than in exams.

An advanced doctoral student who has met their institution’s requirements for candidacy and is working toward completing the doctorate.

A student studying after completing a first university degree, usually in a master's or doctoral program.

The academic guidance and oversight given to a doctoral student during research, writing, and degree progress.

An award or funded academic position supporting research or advanced study.

Funding awarded to support a student through a research degree, especially in British usage.

A regular fixed payment supporting study, training or research.

A graduate appointment combining financial support with teaching or research duties.

A researcher working after a doctorate, often in a temporary research appointment.

An academic employment status providing continuing appointment subject to applicable rules.

An authorized period away from normal duties for research, study or professional renewal.

An examiner from outside the awarding institution who assesses academic work.

A formal arrangement for joint doctoral supervision and degree procedures across institutions.

An examiner from within the institution awarding the degree.

An advanced academic qualification or assessment beyond the doctorate used in some university systems.