Academic English & Research Vocabulary: 200 Key English Terms
Academic English is the shared language of journals, theses, conferences and peer review in almost every discipline. This vocabulary helps university students and researchers read the literature with confidence, write and cite in the expected style, and discuss their work with supervisors, reviewers and international colleagues.
200 terms
11 topics
108 core terms
402 example sentences
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No account needed. Read the meaning, see where the term is used, then study the examples. Click any word in the lesson for help. You can also select a word and press Alt + Enter.
Academic Vocabulary
indicate
verb
Meaning
To show or point to something, especially to show that something is probably true based on data or evidence.
Where you use it
One of the most frequent verbs for reporting results: results, data and findings indicate that something is the case. It is less certain than demonstrate or prove, which makes it useful for careful claims. The noun is indication and the adjective is indicative.
Examples
The results indicate that older participants were more accurate but slower.
Participants were asked to indicate how often they read in English.
Common phrases
results indicate · the data indicate · clearly indicate · indicate a need for
An abbreviation of the Latin exempli gratia, meaning 'for example'; it introduces one or more examples from a larger group.
Where you use it
Common in brackets and tables: '(e.g., interviews and focus groups)'. American style, including APA, puts a comma after it; British writers often leave the comma out. In running prose, many writers prefer 'for example' or 'such as'.
Examples
Participants used several apps (e.g., Duolingo and Quizlet) to practice vocabulary.
Several background factors, e.g. income and age, were controlled for in the model.
Usage note
Do not end a list that starts with e.g. with etc.; e.g. already shows that the list is incomplete.
Common phrases
in brackets (e.g., ...) · e.g. followed by a comma · for example (written in full)
An abbreviation of the Latin id est, meaning 'that is'; it introduces a clarification or a more exact restatement of what came before.
Where you use it
Used mostly in brackets to define or narrow a term: 'first-generation students (i.e., the first in their family to attend university)'. As with e.g., APA style puts a comma after it. In formal prose, 'that is' or 'in other words' are alternatives.
Examples
We focused on the final stage of the project, i.e. the evaluation phase.
Only complete responses (i.e., those with no missing items) were analyzed.
Usage note
Do not confuse i.e. (that is: the only thing meant) with e.g. (for example: one of several possibilities).
Common phrases
in brackets (i.e., ...) · i.e. followed by a comma · that is (written in full)
A general idea or principle, especially one that is defined and used in a particular theory or field of study.
Where you use it
Academic writers define, introduce, apply or challenge a concept, and key concepts are usually defined early in a thesis. To operationalize a concept is to decide how to measure it. The adjective is conceptual, as in conceptual framework.
Examples
The concept of 'learner autonomy' has been defined in many different ways.
Chapter 2 introduces the key concepts used in the analysis.
Common phrases
key concept · define a concept · abstract concept · the concept of · apply a concept
A particular way of thinking about or dealing with a problem, topic or research question.
Where you use it
Very frequent in methods and literature sections: a qualitative approach, a theoretical approach, a new approach to teaching grammar. Researchers adopt, take, use or propose an approach. As a verb it means to begin dealing with something.
Examples
We adopted a mixed-methods approach to capture both general trends and personal experiences.
This paper proposes a new approach to measuring reading motivation.
Usage note
As a noun it takes to + noun or -ing ('an approach to measuring'); as a verb it takes no preposition ('approach the problem', not 'approach to the problem').
Common phrases
adopt an approach · take an approach · a new approach to · theoretical approach · qualitative approach
A possible effect or consequence of research findings for theory, practice or policy; also something suggested without being said directly.
Where you use it
Usually plural in academic writing: implications for teaching, practical implications, theoretical implications, policy implications. Discussion sections often include a subsection on implications. The verb is imply.
Examples
These results have important implications for teacher training.
The final section discusses the practical implications of the study.
Common phrases
implications for practice · practical implications · theoretical implications · policy implications · have implications for
To show clearly, with evidence or examples, that something is true or exists.
Where you use it
A strong reporting verb: if a study demonstrates something, the evidence is convincing. Writers use it for well-established results and choose suggest or indicate when the evidence is weaker. It also means showing how something works, as in demonstrating a tool.
Examples
Several studies have demonstrated a link between sleep and memory.
The pilot study demonstrated that the questionnaire was easy to complete.
Common phrases
clearly demonstrate · demonstrate that · studies have demonstrated · demonstrate the effectiveness of
A formal linking word used to add another point that supports or extends what has just been said.
Where you use it
Usually placed at the start of a sentence and followed by a comma. It belongs to formal writing; in speech people say also or what's more. Similar linkers are moreover, in addition and additionally. Using one in every sentence makes a text sound mechanical.
Examples
The sample was small. Furthermore, all participants came from a single university.
Furthermore, the model performed well on data it had not seen before.
Common phrases
Furthermore, it should be noted that · Furthermore, the results show · and, furthermore,
Something accepted as true without being proved, which a theory, method or statistical test depends on.
Where you use it
Researchers make, rely on, test or challenge assumptions. In statistics, tests have assumptions, such as normal distribution, that are checked before the analysis. The verb is assume.
Examples
The model rests on the assumption that all learners have equal access to the internet.
We checked the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance before running the ANOVA.
Common phrases
make an assumption · underlying assumption · challenge an assumption · based on the assumption that · test assumptions
A fact, event or situation that can be observed and studied, especially one that researchers want to explain.
Where you use it
Formal and very frequent in academic writing: a social phenomenon, a natural phenomenon, a recent phenomenon. Researchers observe, examine, explain or describe a phenomenon. The plural is phenomena.
Examples
Code-switching is a common phenomenon among bilingual speakers.
These phenomena have been studied mostly in Western countries.
Usage note
Phenomena is plural: write 'these phenomena are', not 'this phenomena is'.
Common phrases
social phenomenon · natural phenomenon · explain a phenomenon · a widespread phenomenon
To consist of or be made up of particular parts; formal writing uses it to describe the parts of a sample, text or structure.
Where you use it
Common in methods sections: 'The sample comprised 240 adults.' The whole comprises the parts. 'Is comprised of' is widely used, but many editors prefer comprises, consists of or is composed of.
Examples
The questionnaire comprises 32 items in four sections.
The final sample comprised 186 nurses from five hospitals.
Usage note
Avoid 'comprise of'. Write 'The thesis comprises five chapters' or 'The thesis consists of five chapters'.
Common phrases
the sample comprised · comprise five chapters · comprise the majority of · comprises two parts
In the same order as the things just mentioned; used to match two lists of items without repeating each pair.
Where you use it
Very common when reporting numbers: 'The two groups scored 72 and 65, respectively.' It usually comes at the end of the clause, after a comma, and only makes sense when two lists are matched in order.
Examples
Response rates in 2021 and 2022 were 64% and 58%, respectively.
The first and second authors collected and analyzed the data, respectively.
Usage note
Do not confuse respectively (in that order) with respectfully (politely, with respect).
Common phrases
X and Y, respectively · were 40% and 60%, respectively · scored ... and ..., respectively
A linking word that introduces a contrast with the previous statement, often a result, view or fact that the reader may not expect.
Where you use it
One of the most frequent linkers in academic writing. It usually opens a sentence followed by a comma, or comes after a semicolon or after the subject: 'This view, however, has been criticized.' Unlike but, it cannot join two clauses with only a comma.
Examples
Previous studies focused on adults. However, little is known about adolescents.
The intervention improved reading scores; however, the effect disappeared after six months.
Usage note
Do not write 'The results were positive, however the sample was small.' Use a full stop or a semicolon before however, or simply use but.
Common phrases
However, it should be noted that · however, little is known about · This, however, does not mean · ; however,
A formal linking word showing that what follows is a result or logical conclusion of what has just been stated.
Where you use it
Used to move from evidence to a conclusion, especially in discussion sections. It can open a sentence (Therefore, ...) or sit after the subject or auxiliary (It is therefore important to ...). Thus, hence and consequently are close alternatives; thus is slightly more formal.
Examples
The sample included only one school; therefore, the findings should be interpreted with caution.
It is therefore essential to repeat the study with a larger and more varied group.
Common phrases
It is therefore important to · and therefore · should therefore be · therefore suggests that
To study a question, problem or situation carefully and systematically in order to discover facts or explain how something works.
Where you use it
A standard verb for stating the aim of a study: 'This study investigates ...' or 'The aim was to investigate ...'. Examine, explore and look into are related; investigate suggests a careful, often empirical inquiry. The noun is investigation.
Examples
This study investigates the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance.
Further research is needed to investigate why the effect was weaker among older participants.
Usage note
Investigate takes a direct object: say 'investigate the causes', not 'investigate about the causes'.
Common phrases
investigate the relationship between · investigate the effect of · aim to investigate · investigate further
To find, recognize or name something, such as a pattern, cause, problem or group, after looking at evidence carefully.
Where you use it
Very frequent in aims, results and literature reviews: researchers identify gaps, themes, risk factors and key variables. The noun is identification. Passive forms are common: 'Three themes were identified.'
Examples
The analysis identified three main barriers to online learning.
We aimed to identify factors that predict student dropout.
Usage note
In research, identify usually means 'belirlemek' or 'saptamak', not 'tanımlamak'. To give the meaning of a term, use define.
Common phrases
identify a gap · identify factors · identify themes · clearly identified
To judge the quality, value, effectiveness or importance of something, usually by using clear criteria or evidence.
Where you use it
Researchers evaluate programs, interventions, models and sources; students are asked to critically evaluate arguments in essays. Assess is very close in meaning. The noun evaluation also names a whole type of research: program evaluation.
Examples
The study evaluated the effectiveness of a peer mentoring program for first-year students.
Critically evaluate two competing theories of motivation.
Common phrases
critically evaluate · evaluate the effectiveness of · evaluate the evidence · evaluation criteria
The situation, background or conditions in which something happens or is studied, which help explain its meaning.
Where you use it
Researchers describe the research context (country, institution, setting), place findings in a wider context and avoid quoting sources out of context. Common phrases: in this context, in the Turkish context, context-specific. The adjective is contextual.
Examples
Few studies have examined teacher burnout in the Turkish context.
The quotation was taken out of context and changes the author's meaning.
Common phrases
in this context · research context · out of context · cultural context · place in context
One of the things that influences a situation or result, such as income, motivation or class size.
Where you use it
Very common in aims and results: key factor, contributing factor, risk factor, a range of factors. Researchers identify, examine and control for factors. In statistics, factor analysis groups related items under underlying factors.
Examples
Parental education was the strongest factor associated with reading achievement.
Several factors may explain the low response rate.
Common phrases
key factor · risk factor · contributing factor · a range of factors · factor analysis
A linking phrase used to show a clear difference between two things, groups or results that are being compared.
Where you use it
Common when comparing groups or studies: 'In contrast, the control group ...'. Inside a sentence, use 'in contrast to/with + noun'. By contrast means the same. Whereas and while do a similar job within one sentence: 'Group A improved, whereas Group B did not.'
Examples
Urban students used the platform daily. In contrast, most rural students logged in once a week.
In contrast to earlier studies, we found no gender difference.
Usage note
Do not use 'on the contrary' to compare two things. It rejects a statement that has just been made: 'The task was not easy; on the contrary, it was very difficult.'
Common phrases
In contrast, · in contrast to · in sharp contrast · by contrast
To show that something is true or exists by providing evidence, or to create something that lasts, such as a link, method or field of study.
Where you use it
Researchers establish a link, a causal relationship or the validity of a scale. Well-established describes ideas or findings that are widely accepted. In the CARS model of introductions, the first move is to establish the territory.
Examples
A cross-sectional design cannot establish a causal relationship.
It is well established that sleep affects memory consolidation.
Common phrases
establish a link · establish causality · well-established · establish the validity of
To study a topic in an open, flexible way in order to understand it better, especially when little is known about it.
Where you use it
A typical aim verb in qualitative research: 'This study explores how teachers experience ...'. It suggests discovery rather than testing a hypothesis, so it fits interviews and case studies. The adjective is exploratory: an exploratory study.
Examples
This study explores how first-generation students adapt to university life.
Future work could explore the role of social media in this process.
Common phrases
explore how · explore the experiences of · exploratory study · explore further
To draw special attention to something so that readers notice its importance.
Where you use it
Frequent in discussions and conclusions: findings highlight the need for, the importance of or the role of something. Emphasize, underline and stress are close synonyms. Some journals also ask for 'highlights', three to five short bullet points summarizing the paper.
Examples
These results highlight the need for teacher training in digital assessment.
The authors highlight two limitations of their design.
Common phrases
highlight the need for · highlight the importance of · highlight the role of · as highlighted above
Standards or conditions used to judge, select or decide something; the singular form is criterion.
Where you use it
Found at every stage of research: inclusion and exclusion criteria decide which participants or studies are included, evaluation criteria guide grading, and diagnostic criteria define a condition. People meet, use, apply or establish criteria.
Examples
Participants who did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded.
The main criterion for selecting schools was class size.
Usage note
Criteria is plural: write 'these criteria are' and 'one criterion is', not 'a criteria'.
The range of topics, people, places or time periods that a study, article or thesis covers.
Where you use it
Writers define or narrow the scope of a study and explain what lies beyond the scope of the paper. Supervisors often say a thesis topic is too broad and needs a narrower scope. Journals publish an 'aims and scope' page describing what they accept.
Examples
A full comparison with private schools is beyond the scope of this study.
Read the journal's aims and scope before you submit.
Common phrases
beyond the scope of · narrow the scope · scope of the study · aims and scope
Happening or coming after something else, such as a later study, stage or chapter.
Where you use it
A formal alternative to later or next: subsequent studies, subsequent chapters, subsequent analysis. The adverb subsequently is common in methods: 'Participants were subsequently interviewed.' Use 'subsequent to' (meaning after) sparingly.
Examples
Subsequent studies failed to replicate the original effect.
Real or basic but not immediately obvious, such as a cause, mechanism or assumption that explains what can be seen.
Where you use it
Common in discussions: underlying causes, underlying mechanisms, underlying assumptions, underlying factors. Researchers try to uncover what lies beneath an observed pattern. The verb underlie is also used: 'Several factors underlie this trend.'
Examples
More research is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms.
The underlying assumption of the model is that learners act rationally.
To form or make up something, or to be considered as something, such as a breach, a risk or evidence.
Where you use it
Two common patterns: parts constitute a whole ('Women constituted 58% of the sample') and X constitutes Y ('This constitutes plagiarism'). It is more formal than make up or be. The noun constituent means a part or component.
Examples
Turkish students constituted almost half of the international sample.
Reusing your own published text without citation may constitute self-plagiarism.
Common phrases
constitute a majority · constitute evidence · constitute plagiarism · what constitutes
To say or believe that something is caused by a particular factor, or that a statement or work comes from a particular person.
Where you use it
The pattern is attribute X to Y: 'The drop in scores was attributed to the change in test format.' It is also used for quotations: a remark attributed to Einstein. The noun attribution is used in both senses.
Examples
The authors attribute the improvement to smaller class sizes.
Part of the difference can be attributed to measurement error.
Usage note
The verb is stressed on the second syllable (/əˈtrɪbjuːt/); the noun attribute, meaning a quality, is stressed on the first (/ˈætrɪbjuːt/).
Common phrases
attribute X to Y · be attributed to · can be attributed to · widely attributed to
An idea, belief or concept, especially one that is discussed, questioned or used as the basis of an argument.
Where you use it
Common in literature reviews and theory: the notion of identity, challenge the notion that, a widely held notion. It often introduces an idea the writer is about to question. Concept is more technical; notion can suggest a looser or less fixed idea.
Examples
These findings challenge the notion that bilingualism delays language development.
Bourdieu's notion of cultural capital is central to this chapter.
Common phrases
the notion of · challenge the notion that · reject the notion · widely held notion
To get or develop something from a source, such as data from records, themes from interviews or a hypothesis from theory.
Where you use it
Usually passive with from: 'Codes were derived from the data', 'The hypotheses are derived from social learning theory.' It also describes word origins: a word derived from Latin. The noun derivation and the adjective derived are common.
Examples
The themes were derived inductively from the interview data.
Income data were derived from tax records.
Common phrases
derived from · derive a hypothesis · data derived from · derive meaning from
Stated clearly and directly, so that nothing has to be guessed; the opposite of implicit.
Where you use it
Supervisors often ask students to make an argument, link or assumption more explicit. In education research, explicit instruction means teaching a skill directly. The adverb explicitly is common: 'The author does not explicitly state ...'. Implicit means suggested but not stated.
Examples
Make the link between your findings and the research questions more explicit.
The policy document does not explicitly mention refugee students.
Common phrases
make explicit · explicit reference to · explicitly state · explicit and implicit
Careful, systematic study of a subject in order to discover new facts, test ideas or reach new conclusions.
Where you use it
The most basic word in academic life. You do, conduct or carry out research on or into a topic, and research shows, suggests or finds something. As a noun it is uncountable, so academics say 'studies' or 'a body of research' when they need a plural idea.
Examples
Previous research on online learning has focused mainly on university students.
She is carrying out research into water quality in rural areas.
More research is needed before we can draw firm conclusions.
Usage note
Turkish speakers often write 'researches' or 'a research'. In academic English, use 'research' (uncountable), 'a study' or 'studies'.
Common phrases
conduct research · carry out research · research on/into · previous research · further research
A clear, focused question that a study is designed to answer; it guides the choice of methods, data and analysis.
Where you use it
Stated in the introduction of theses, proposals and articles, often numbered RQ1, RQ2 and so on. You formulate, address or answer a research question. Supervisors and reviewers often ask whether it is too broad or too narrow.
Examples
Our first research question asks how teachers use feedback in large classes.
Your research question is too broad for a master's thesis; try to narrow it down.
Common phrases
formulate a research question · address a research question · answer the research question · narrow down a research question
A testable statement that predicts a relationship or outcome, which a study then supports or fails to support with evidence.
Where you use it
Common in experimental and quantitative research. Researchers formulate, test, support or reject a hypothesis; statistics distinguishes the null hypothesis from the alternative hypothesis. Careful writers say the data support a hypothesis rather than prove it.
Examples
We hypothesized that sleep quality would predict exam performance, and the results supported this hypothesis.
The null hypothesis was rejected at the .05 level.
Usage note
The plural noun is hypotheses /haɪˈpɒθəsiːz/: one hypothesis, two hypotheses.
Common phrases
test a hypothesis · formulate a hypothesis · support a hypothesis · null hypothesis · reject the hypothesis
The overall approach and reasoning behind how a study is done, including the choice of design, methods, data and analysis, and the reasons for those choices.
Where you use it
Names a chapter or section of a thesis or article (the methodology chapter) and appears in reviewers' comments about how sound a study is. Strictly, methodology is the rationale and methods are the specific tools, but many writers use the two words loosely.
Examples
The methodology chapter explains why a case study design was chosen.
One reviewer raised concerns about the methodology and asked for more detail on sampling.
Usage note
Methodology is not just a grander word for method: 'We used a survey method' is often clearer than 'We used a survey methodology'.
Common phrases
research methodology · methodology chapter · robust methodology · describe the methodology
Describing research that studies experiences, meanings and behavior through words, images or observation rather than numbers, often with smaller groups of people.
Where you use it
Used with research, data, methods and studies: qualitative interviews, qualitative data, a qualitative approach. Common in education, sociology, nursing and psychology. Typical methods include interviews, focus groups, observation and document analysis.
Examples
We used a qualitative design based on semi-structured interviews with twelve teachers.
The qualitative data were analyzed thematically.
Usage note
Qualitative and quantitative look alike: qualit- relates to quality, quantit- to quantity.
Common phrases
qualitative research · qualitative data · qualitative approach · qualitative study
Describing research that collects numerical data and uses statistics to measure, compare or test relationships, often with larger samples.
Where you use it
Common in psychology, economics, health sciences and engineering. Quantitative studies use surveys, experiments, tests and existing datasets, and report results with statistics such as means, correlations and p-values.
Examples
The study takes a quantitative approach, using survey data from 1,200 households.
Quantitative results are presented in Tables 2 and 3.
Usage note
A common spelling and pronunciation mistake is 'quantative'; do not drop the 'ti' syllable.
Common phrases
quantitative research · quantitative data · quantitative analysis · quantitative methods
The smaller group of people, items or texts selected from a larger population for a study, so that conclusions can be drawn about that population.
Where you use it
Researchers select, recruit or draw a sample. Sample size, representative sample, random sampling and convenience sampling are standard terms in methods sections. Sampling is the name for the selection process.
Examples
The sample consisted of 312 first-year students from three universities.
Because the sample was small, the results cannot be generalized to all teachers.
Usage note
Turkish speakers sometimes use sample when they mean example. In research writing, a sample is the group studied; 'for example' introduces an illustration.
Common phrases
sample size · representative sample · random sample · convenience sample · recruit a sample
A person who takes part in a study, for example by answering a questionnaire, being interviewed or completing an experiment.
Where you use it
The standard, respectful term in most fields today; older texts and some experimental work say subjects. Researchers recruit participants, obtain their consent and protect their identity. Qualitative reports often refer to participants with codes such as P1 and P2.
Examples
Participants were recruited through social media and university mailing lists.
All participants gave written informed consent before the interview.
Common phrases
recruit participants · research participants · participants were asked to · withdraw participants
A set of written questions given to many people to collect information about their opinions, experiences or behavior.
Where you use it
Researchers design, pilot, distribute and administer questionnaires, and respondents complete or fill them in. Questionnaires may use Likert-scale items (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) and open-ended questions. Survey is a broader word for the whole data collection.
Examples
The questionnaire was piloted with 20 students before the main study.
Of the 400 questionnaires distributed, 286 were returned complete.
Usage note
It is spelled with double n: questionnaire. The 'qu' is pronounced /kw/, as in question.
Common phrases
design a questionnaire · administer a questionnaire · complete a questionnaire · online questionnaire · questionnaire items
An in-depth study of one particular person, group, organization, event or place, used to understand it in its real context.
Where you use it
Common in education, business, law, medicine and the social sciences. A case study can be single or multiple and may combine interviews, documents and observation. Researchers usually name the case: 'a case study of a primary school in Izmir'.
Examples
This case study examines how one small company moved to remote work.
We conducted a multiple case study of three rural schools.
Common phrases
conduct a case study · single case study · multiple case study · in-depth case study
To do or complete a planned task, such as an experiment, survey, analysis or piece of research.
Where you use it
Very common in methods sections and research proposals, often in the passive: 'The interviews were carried out in Turkish.' Conduct is a slightly more formal alternative. With a pronoun, the particle goes at the end: carry it out.
Examples
The fieldwork was carried out between April and June 2023.
We carried out a pilot study to test the interview questions.
Common phrases
carry out research · carry out a study · carry out an analysis · carry out interviews
The extent to which a study or instrument really measures what it claims to measure and supports the conclusions drawn from it.
Where you use it
Discussed in methods and limitations sections, often together with reliability. Common types are internal validity, external validity, construct validity and content validity. Researchers establish, ensure, threaten or improve validity.
Examples
Content validity was checked by three experts in language teaching.
The lack of a control group is a threat to the internal validity of the study.
The extent to which a measurement or method gives consistent results when it is repeated or used by different researchers.
Where you use it
Reported for scales and tests (internal consistency, often with Cronbach's alpha), for repeated measurements (test-retest reliability) and for coding (inter-rater reliability). Reliability is necessary for validity but does not guarantee it.
Examples
The scale showed high reliability (Cronbach's α = .89).
To check inter-rater reliability, a second researcher coded 20% of the interviews.
A research design that combines qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis in one study to answer a question more fully.
Where you use it
Common in education, health and the social sciences. Typical designs are explanatory sequential (quantitative, then qualitative), exploratory sequential (qualitative, then quantitative) and convergent (both at the same time). Before a noun it is often hyphenated: a mixed-methods study.
Examples
We used mixed methods: a survey of 400 nurses followed by 15 interviews.
A mixed-methods design allowed us to explain the survey results in more depth.
Common phrases
mixed-methods design · mixed-methods study · mixed methods research · use mixed methods
Any characteristic, such as age, income or test score, that can take different values and is measured, controlled or changed in a study.
Where you use it
In an experiment, the researcher changes the independent variable and measures its effect on the dependent variable. Other types include control, confounding, moderating and mediating variables. Researchers measure, control for and operationalize variables.
Examples
Gender and age were included as control variables.
The dependent variable was the number of words students recalled correctly.
Common phrases
independent variable · dependent variable · control for a variable · confounding variable · measure a variable
A research method that collects information from many people, usually by asking the same set of questions in a questionnaire or interview.
Where you use it
Strictly, the survey is the whole method or study and the questionnaire is the instrument used in it, though many people use the words interchangeably. Researchers conduct, administer or distribute a survey; online surveys often use tools such as Google Forms or Qualtrics.
Examples
We conducted an online survey of 1,200 university students in Ankara and İzmir.
The survey response rate was 64 percent.
Usage note
As a verb, survey is stressed on the second syllable (/səˈveɪ/); the noun is stressed on the first.
Common phrases
conduct a survey · online survey · survey data · response rate · survey research
The process of gathering information for a study, for example through questionnaires, interviews, observations, tests or existing records.
Where you use it
A standard subheading in methods sections, often next to 'instruments' or 'procedure'. Writers say where, when, how and by whom data were collected. Before a noun: data collection tools, data collection period.
Examples
Data collection took place between March and May 2024.
Two data collection tools were used: a background questionnaire and a reading test.
Common phrases
data collection process · data collection instrument · data collection period · begin data collection
The whole group of people, cases or items that a study is about and from which a smaller sample is usually drawn.
Where you use it
Methods sections define the target population (for example, all public-school teachers in one province) and explain how the sample was selected from it. Results are generalized from the sample to the population. In statistics, population values are called parameters.
Examples
The population of the study consisted of all nursing students at three state universities.
Because the population was small, we invited every member to take part.
Usage note
In research Turkish, population is usually translated as 'evren', not 'nüfus'.
Common phrases
target population · study population · general population · representative of the population
A specific, achievable step that a study sets out to complete in order to reach its broader aim.
Where you use it
Proposals and introductions often list 'aims and objectives': the aim is the overall purpose, while objectives are concrete steps, often starting with verbs such as identify, compare, measure or evaluate. As an adjective, objective means unbiased.
Examples
The first objective is to identify the main sources of stress among junior doctors.
The study had one general aim and three specific objectives.
Common phrases
aims and objectives · research objectives · specific objective · achieve an objective
Based on observation, measurement or experience rather than only on theory or logical reasoning.
Where you use it
Very common in phrases such as empirical study, empirical evidence, empirical data and empirical research. An empirical paper collects or analyzes data; a conceptual or theoretical paper does not. The adverb is empirically: 'empirically tested'.
Examples
There is little empirical evidence to support this claim.
Most empirical studies in this area have used survey data.
Common phrases
empirical evidence · empirical study · empirical data · empirically tested
A group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the treatment being tested, so that their results can be compared with those who do.
Where you use it
Paired with the experimental (or treatment) group. Ideally, participants are randomly assigned to groups. A control group may receive nothing, a placebo, or the usual treatment or teaching method.
Examples
The control group continued with the standard curriculum.
Scores in the experimental group rose significantly more than in the control group.
Common phrases
experimental and control groups · assign to the control group · compared with the control group · waitlist control group
An interview that follows a prepared list of questions but lets the researcher change the order and ask follow-up questions.
Where you use it
The most common interview type in qualitative research. The question list is called an interview guide or protocol; follow-up questions are probes. Interviews are usually recorded with consent, transcribed and then coded.
Examples
Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 18 school principals.
Each semi-structured interview lasted between 40 and 60 minutes.
A small trial version of a study, carried out before the main study to test the instruments, procedures and timing.
Where you use it
Researchers pilot a questionnaire to find unclear items, check how long it takes and estimate response rates. Pilot is also a verb: 'The questionnaire was piloted with 30 students.' Pilot data are usually not included in the main analysis.
Examples
A pilot study with 25 teachers showed that two items were confusing.
We revised the interview questions after the pilot study.
Common phrases
conduct a pilot study · pilot a questionnaire · pilot data · results of the pilot study
A study that collects data from the same people or cases repeatedly over a long period in order to observe change.
Where you use it
Longitudinal designs can show how variables change and which comes first, which a cross-sectional study, collecting data at one point in time, cannot. They are expensive and suffer from attrition, the loss of participants over time. Cohort and panel studies are types of longitudinal study.
Examples
This longitudinal study followed 500 children from age 3 to age 11.
A longitudinal study would be needed to establish the direction of the effect.
Common phrases
longitudinal data · longitudinal design · cross-sectional study · follow-up period
A way of choosing a sample in which every member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected.
Where you use it
Random sampling supports generalizing from the sample to the population; stratified and cluster sampling are variants. Many studies instead use non-random methods such as convenience or purposive sampling and should say so openly. Do not confuse it with random assignment to groups.
Examples
Schools were selected through stratified random sampling by region.
Because we used convenience rather than random sampling, the results may not generalize.
Common phrases
simple random sampling · stratified random sampling · random sample · convenience sampling · purposive sampling
A guided group discussion in which a small number of participants talk about a topic so that researchers can study their shared and differing views.
Where you use it
Typically six to ten people with a moderator, lasting one to two hours. Useful for exploring opinions and group norms and for developing questionnaire items. Researchers conduct, run or moderate focus groups, and must manage participants who dominate the discussion.
Examples
We held four focus groups with parents of children with special needs.
The focus group discussions were recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Common phrases
conduct a focus group · focus group discussion · focus group participants · moderate a focus group
The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to other people, places or situations beyond the sample studied.
Where you use it
Small or non-random samples limit generalizability, so the word often appears in limitations sections. It is closely related to external validity. Qualitative researchers usually prefer the term transferability. British spelling: generalisability.
Examples
The generalizability of the findings is limited by the single-site design.
Future studies with larger samples could improve generalizability.
Common phrases
limit the generalizability · generalizability of the findings · external validity · improve generalizability
A set of shared beliefs about reality, knowledge and methods that shapes how researchers in a field ask questions and do research.
Where you use it
Methodology chapters often name a paradigm such as positivism, interpretivism or pragmatism to justify the choice of methods. The phrase paradigm shift comes from Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book on scientific revolutions. Avoid using paradigm as a fancy word for model.
Examples
This study is situated within the interpretive paradigm.
The move from behaviorism to cognitivism is often described as a paradigm shift.
Using more than one data source, method, researcher or theory to study the same question, so that findings can be checked against each other.
Where you use it
Common in qualitative and mixed-methods research to increase credibility. Norman Denzin described four types: data, investigator, theory and methodological triangulation. For example, a study might combine interviews, classroom observations and documents.
Examples
Data triangulation was achieved by combining interviews, observations and lesson plans.
Triangulation increased our confidence in the main themes.
Facts, numbers, recordings, texts or observations collected in a study and then analyzed to answer a research question.
Where you use it
Researchers collect, gather, analyze and interpret data. Data can be quantitative (numbers) or qualitative (interviews, texts), and raw data are the original, unprocessed records. One organized collection is a data set or dataset.
Examples
The data were collected through online questionnaires between March and May.
We need to clean the data before we start the analysis.
Usage note
Data is originally the plural of datum. Many style guides, including APA, use 'the data are'; 'the data is' is common in everyday English.
Common phrases
collect data · analyze data · raw data · data collection · interpret the data
The results or information that a study discovers after its data have been collected and analyzed.
Where you use it
Usually plural in academic writing. Findings are reported, presented, discussed and compared with earlier studies, and key findings are often summarized in the abstract and conclusion. Typical verbs: findings show, suggest, indicate or reveal.
Examples
Our findings suggest that peer feedback improves students' writing.
These findings are consistent with earlier studies in Spain and Italy.
Common phrases
key findings · report findings · the findings suggest · preliminary findings · discuss the findings
Detailed examination of data or a text in order to identify patterns, relationships or meaning, often using statistical or qualitative techniques.
Where you use it
Researchers carry out, conduct or run an analysis. Common types include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis and regression analysis. The verb is analyze in American English and analyse in British English.
Examples
The analysis was carried out in SPSS.
A closer analysis of the interviews revealed three main themes.
Usage note
The plural is analyses /əˈnæləsiːz/. Do not confuse it with the British verb form analyses /ˈænəlaɪzɪz/.
Common phrases
statistical analysis · data analysis · conduct an analysis · content analysis · further analysis
In statistics, describing a result unlikely to be due to chance alone at a chosen level such as p < .05; in general use, large or important enough to matter.
Where you use it
Very frequent in results sections: a significant difference, effect or correlation. Because of the statistical meaning, many writers avoid significant in its general sense in quantitative papers and choose important, substantial or notable instead. The noun is significance.
Examples
There was a statistically significant difference between the two groups (p = .003).
Social media has had a significant impact on how students search for sources.
Usage note
Statistically significant does not automatically mean large or important; a very small effect can be significant in a big sample.
To decide what something means or what is true after thinking carefully about the evidence or results.
Where you use it
Common in discussion and conclusion sections, often in the plural: draw conclusions. Writers use it to say when it is too early to draw firm conclusions or that conclusions from small samples are risky. You draw conclusions from data or about a topic.
Examples
It is too early to draw firm conclusions from such a small sample.
What conclusions can we draw from these interviews?
Usage note
Say draw or reach a conclusion, not 'take a conclusion'.
Common phrases
draw firm conclusions · draw conclusions from · draw the conclusion that · draw tentative conclusions
A statistical relationship between two variables in which they tend to change together, either in the same or in opposite directions.
Where you use it
Reported with a coefficient such as Pearson's r, which ranges from -1 to +1. Writers describe a positive, negative, strong, weak or significant correlation between two variables. The well-known warning is that correlation does not imply causation.
Examples
There was a moderate positive correlation between reading time and vocabulary scores (r = .42).
A correlation alone cannot show that one variable causes the other.
A qualitative method for finding, organizing and interpreting patterns of meaning, called themes, across interviews, texts or other data.
Where you use it
Widely used in psychology, education and health research, often following Braun and Clarke's six-phase approach. Researchers code the data, generate and review themes, and report them with quotations from participants.
Examples
The interview transcripts were examined using thematic analysis.
Thematic analysis produced four main themes and eleven sub-themes.
Common phrases
conduct a thematic analysis · reflexive thematic analysis · themes and sub-themes · inductive thematic analysis
To explain the reason for something; also to form a particular part or proportion of a total.
Where you use it
Both meanings are common in results and discussion sections. Explaining: 'Age may account for these differences.' Proportion: 'Women accounted for 60% of the sample.' In statistics, a variable or model accounts for a percentage of the variance.
Examples
Differences in prior knowledge may account for the gap between the two groups.
International students accounted for nearly a third of the respondents.
The model accounts for 35% of the variance in exam scores.
Common phrases
account for the difference · account for the variance · partly account for · account for a large proportion
To explain what data, results or a text mean, especially by connecting them to theory, earlier research or the research question.
Where you use it
Results sections report numbers; discussion sections interpret them. Common phrases are 'interpret the results', 'interpret with caution' and 'can be interpreted as'. The noun interpretation is countable: one finding may have several possible interpretations.
Examples
These findings should be interpreted with caution because of the small sample size.
One way to interpret this result is that students relied more on memorization.
Common phrases
interpret with caution · interpret the results · can be interpreted as · alternative interpretation
A collection of related data organized for analysis, such as survey responses in a spreadsheet or a national statistics file.
Where you use it
Also written data set. Researchers collect, clean, merge and share datasets, and many journals now ask authors to say where the dataset is available. Large existing datasets, such as PISA or TÜİK surveys, are used for secondary analysis.
Examples
The final dataset included 2,340 responses after incomplete cases were removed.
The dataset is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Common phrases
large dataset · clean the dataset · publicly available dataset · data availability statement
The average value of a set of numbers, found by adding them together and dividing the total by how many numbers there are.
Where you use it
Reported with the standard deviation: in APA style, M = 3.42, SD = 0.87. The mean is sensitive to extreme values, so skewed data are often summarized with the median instead. Group means are compared with tests such as the t-test or ANOVA.
Examples
The mean age of participants was 21.4 years (SD = 2.1).
Group means were compared using an independent-samples t-test.
Usage note
English uses a decimal point (3.42) and a comma for thousands (2,340); Turkish does the opposite (3,42 and 2.340).
Common phrases
mean score · mean age · group means · mean and standard deviation
A number that shows how spread out the values in a dataset are around the mean; a small value means most scores are close to the average.
Where you use it
Abbreviated SD and normally reported next to the mean in text and tables. It is the square root of the variance. Do not confuse it with the standard error (SE), which describes how precise an estimate of the mean is.
Examples
Scores ranged from 12 to 48, with a mean of 31.2 and a standard deviation of 6.5.
Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for each group.
Common phrases
mean and standard deviation · one standard deviation above the mean · large standard deviation · report the SD
Numbers and tables that summarize the main features of a dataset, such as frequencies, percentages, means, ranges and standard deviations.
Where you use it
Usually the first part of a quantitative results section, describing the sample and the main variables before any tests. They are contrasted with inferential statistics, which use the sample to draw conclusions about the population.
Examples
Descriptive statistics for all study variables are presented in Table 1.
We began with descriptive statistics and then ran a regression analysis.
A probability showing how likely results at least as extreme as yours would be if there were really no effect, that is, if the null hypothesis were true.
Where you use it
A result is usually called statistically significant when p < .05. APA style reports exact values in italics without a leading zero (p = .032) and uses p < .001 for very small values. A p-value does not show how large or important an effect is, so effect sizes are reported too.
Examples
The p-value for the interaction term was .004, well below the .05 threshold.
A small p-value alone does not tell you whether the effect matters in practice.
In qualitative research, the process of labeling parts of the data, such as sentences in interviews, with short codes that describe their meaning.
Where you use it
Codes are grouped into categories and themes. Coding can be inductive (codes come from the data) or deductive (codes come from theory). Researchers often keep a codebook, use software such as NVivo, MAXQDA or ATLAS.ti, and check agreement between two coders.
Examples
Two researchers carried out the coding independently and then compared their codes.
A general direction in which something is changing or developing over time, such as a rise in scores or a fall in enrollment.
Where you use it
Used to describe graphs and data over time: an upward or downward trend, a general trend, a clear trend. Data show, follow or reverse a trend. Reviewers often object to the phrase 'a trend toward significance' for results with p slightly above .05.
Examples
Figure 2 shows a steady upward trend in online enrollment since 2015.
This trend was not observed in rural schools.
Common phrases
upward trend · downward trend · general trend · follow a trend · reverse a trend
To write down exactly what was said in a recorded interview, focus group or conversation so that it can be analyzed.
Where you use it
Interviews are usually transcribed verbatim (word for word), sometimes including pauses and laughter. The written text is a transcript and the process is transcription. Many researchers now use automatic transcription software and then check the output carefully.
Examples
All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim.
It took me about five hours to transcribe each one-hour interview.
A critical summary of what has already been published on a topic, showing the main ideas, debates and gaps that a new study responds to.
Where you use it
Can be a chapter of a thesis, a section of an article or a stand-alone review article. Students write, conduct or update a literature review, and supervisors often ask for it to be more critical and less descriptive.
Examples
In the literature review, I group previous studies by theme rather than by year.
Your literature review summarizes the sources well, but it needs more critical evaluation.
Usage note
A systematic review follows a strict, documented search procedure; a traditional or narrative literature review is more selective.
Common phrases
conduct a literature review · systematic literature review · write the literature review · update the literature review
The body of published research and writing on a particular subject; in academic use it does not mean novels and poetry.
Where you use it
Usually used with the: the literature on motivation, the existing literature, a gap in the literature. Researchers review, search or contribute to the literature. In this sense it is uncountable.
Examples
The literature on bilingual education has grown rapidly since 2010.
This study contributes to the literature by focusing on rural schools.
Usage note
Turkish speakers sometimes write 'literatures'. In this sense the word is uncountable: use 'the literature', or 'previous studies' for a plural idea.
Common phrases
the existing literature · the literature on · review the literature · contribute to the literature · a gap in the literature
A question, group, context or problem that existing studies have not yet addressed well, which a new study aims to fill.
Where you use it
Identifying a research gap is a standard step at the end of a literature review and in the introduction of an article. Writers identify, address or fill a gap, and reviewers often ask what the gap is and why it matters.
Examples
Few studies have examined adult learners, and our project addresses this research gap.
The reviewer was not convinced that there is a real research gap here.
Common phrases
identify a research gap · address a research gap · fill a gap · a gap in the literature
The theory or set of connected theories that a study uses to explain its problem, shape its questions and interpret its findings.
Where you use it
Usually presented within or after the literature review, and often as a separate chapter in theses. Researchers adopt, draw on or develop a theoretical framework, and reviewers ask whether it is clearly linked to the analysis. Conceptual framework is a related, broader term.
Examples
The study uses self-determination theory as its theoretical framework.
Your theoretical framework chapter should explain why this theory fits your research question.
Common phrases
adopt a theoretical framework · draw on a theoretical framework · theoretical framework chapter · develop a framework
Describing a work, study or idea that was highly original and has strongly influenced later research in a field.
Where you use it
Used almost only in phrases such as seminal work, seminal study, seminal paper or seminal contribution. Literature reviews usually cite seminal works even when they are old, alongside recent studies.
Examples
Vygotsky's seminal work on the zone of proximal development still shapes debates in education.
Your review cites many recent papers but misses the seminal studies from the 1990s.
Common phrases
seminal work · seminal study · seminal paper · seminal contribution
To combine ideas and findings from several sources into a connected whole that shows patterns, agreements and differences, rather than summarizing each source separately.
Where you use it
The skill supervisors most often ask for in a literature review: 'Don't just summarize, synthesize.' The noun is synthesis (plural syntheses), and the British spelling is synthesise.
Examples
Try to synthesize the studies by theme instead of describing them one by one.
This review synthesizes findings from 48 studies published between 2000 and 2022.
Common phrases
synthesize the literature · synthesize findings · synthesize sources · critically synthesize
To use ideas, knowledge, experience or data from a particular source to support or build your own work.
Where you use it
A useful phrase for naming the theories and sources a study uses: 'This study draws on sociocultural theory.' It also appears in methods sections: 'The analysis draws on data from the national survey.' Similar verbs are rely on and make use of.
Examples
The project draws on twenty years of classroom observation data.
In this chapter, I draw on feminist theory to interpret the interviews.
Common phrases
draw on theory · draw on data · draw on experience · draw heavily on
To use earlier work, results or ideas as a foundation and develop them further in a new study.
Where you use it
Used to position a study in relation to previous research and show continuity: 'This study builds on Yılmaz (2019) by adding a longitudinal component.' It is often paired with extend: 'builds on and extends'.
Examples
Our model builds on earlier work on reading fluency.
Future studies could build on these findings by including older age groups.
Common phrases
build on previous work · build on these findings · build on and extend · build on earlier research
An original document or record created at the time of the events or by the people who did the research, such as a letter, archive file, dataset or original study.
Where you use it
The meaning depends on the discipline. In history and literature, primary sources are archives, diaries, novels or newspapers of the period; in the sciences, the primary source is the original article that reports a study. Tutors expect students to read and cite primary sources whenever possible.
Examples
The chapter is based on primary sources from the Ottoman archives in Istanbul.
Always try to cite the primary source rather than a textbook summary of it.
Common phrases
primary source material · consult primary sources · archival sources · cite the primary source
A text that describes, summarizes, analyzes or interprets primary sources or other people's research, such as a review article, textbook or biography.
Where you use it
Secondary sources are useful for getting an overview of a topic and finding key studies, but for important claims writers are expected to go back to the original. When you cite a study you only read about in a secondary source, you use a secondary citation.
Examples
Review articles are secondary sources, but they can lead you to the key primary studies.
Your literature review relies too heavily on secondary sources.
Common phrases
rely on secondary sources · secondary source material · use secondary sources · a reliable secondary source
A review that uses a clear, pre-planned and repeatable method to find, select and evaluate all relevant studies on a specific question.
Where you use it
Common in medicine, health and education. Authors register a protocol, search several databases, apply inclusion criteria and often report the process with a PRISMA flow diagram. A narrative literature review is less formal. Many systematic reviews include a meta-analysis.
Examples
We conducted a systematic review of studies published between 2010 and 2024.
The systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines.
Common phrases
conduct a systematic review · systematic review and meta-analysis · PRISMA flow diagram · review protocol
An online collection of records for journal articles, books and other publications that researchers can search to find literature.
Where you use it
Major multidisciplinary databases are Web of Science and Scopus; subject databases include PubMed, ERIC and PsycINFO. In Turkey, researchers also use TR Dizin, DergiPark and the YÖK National Thesis Center. University libraries provide access through subscriptions.
Examples
We searched four databases: Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC and TR Dizin.
The library gives students off-campus access to most databases.
A statistical method that combines the results of many independent studies on the same question to produce an overall estimate of an effect.
Where you use it
Usually carried out as part of a systematic review. Studies are weighted, effect sizes are pooled and results are often shown in a forest plot. Researchers also check heterogeneity between studies and publication bias. The plural is meta-analyses.
Examples
A meta-analysis of 52 studies found a moderate effect of feedback on learning.
We conducted a meta-analysis using a random-effects model.
Common phrases
conduct a meta-analysis · systematic review and meta-analysis · pooled effect size · random-effects meta-analysis
The whole collection of published research on a particular topic, considered as a single source of knowledge.
Where you use it
Very common in introductions and literature reviews, especially in 'a growing body of literature suggests that ...'. A study adds to or contributes to the body of literature. Body of research and body of evidence are frequent variants.
Examples
A growing body of literature links screen time to sleep problems in adolescents.
This thesis adds to the small body of literature on rural teachers in Türkiye.
Common phrases
a growing body of literature · a large body of research · body of evidence · contribute to the body of literature
General agreement among a group, such as researchers in a field, about a fact, explanation or course of action.
Where you use it
Frequent in literature reviews: 'There is no consensus on ...', 'a growing consensus that ...', 'the scientific consensus'. Researchers reach, build or challenge a consensus. The Delphi technique is a structured method for building consensus among experts.
Examples
There is no consensus yet on how to define digital literacy.
The expert panel reached consensus after three rounds of discussion.
Usage note
Check the spelling: consensus, not 'concensus'. 'General consensus' is common but often criticized as repetitive.
Common phrases
reach a consensus · no consensus on · growing consensus · scientific consensus · consensus among researchers
A careful evaluation of a theory, study or text that discusses its strengths and weaknesses; also used as a verb.
Where you use it
Students are asked to critique an article or write a critique of a theory. In academic English a critique is balanced, not only negative: it judges method, evidence and argument. Criticize usually means pointing out faults, and criticism is its noun.
Examples
For next week, write a 1,000-word critique of the article on homework and achievement.
Several scholars have critiqued the model for ignoring cultural differences.
Usage note
Critique is stressed on the second syllable (/krɪˈtiːk/). Do not confuse it with critic, which means a person who criticizes.
Common phrases
write a critique · critique a study · offer a critique · critique of the literature
To mention a source, such as a book or article, in your writing to show where an idea, fact or quotation comes from.
Where you use it
Used constantly in academic writing and supervision. You cite a source, an author or a study as evidence, and a paper is cited when other researchers refer to it. Passive forms are common: 'the most widely cited study in the field'.
Examples
Remember to cite every source you paraphrase, not just the ones you quote.
This paper has been cited more than 2,000 times.
Usage note
Cite, site and sight are all pronounced /saɪt/. When it means referring to a source, the spelling is cite.
Common phrases
cite a source · widely cited · cite as evidence · correctly cite · highly cited
A reference to a source in a piece of writing; also each time another publication refers to a work, counted as a measure of its influence.
Where you use it
Has two common meanings: the reference you write (an in-text citation, a full citation in the reference list) and the citations a paper receives, which Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science track and which are used when researchers are evaluated.
Examples
Check that every citation in the text appears in your reference list.
Her 2015 article now has over 500 citations on Google Scholar.
Common phrases
citation style · citation count · receive citations · full citation · citation index
The list at the end of a paper or thesis giving full details of every source cited in the text, arranged in the order a citation style requires.
Where you use it
Usually titled 'References' in APA style and in many science journals. Students compile, format and check a reference list, often with tools such as Zotero, Mendeley or EndNote. Every in-text citation must match an entry in the list.
Examples
In APA style, the reference list is in alphabetical order by the first author's surname.
Two sources in your reference list are never cited in the text.
Usage note
A reference list contains only the works you cite; a bibliography may also include works you read but did not cite.
Common phrases
compile a reference list · format the reference list · add to the reference list · an entry in the reference list
To express an author's idea in your own words and sentence structure while keeping the original meaning; the source still needs a citation.
Where you use it
A core academic writing skill, used far more often than direct quotation in most disciplines. It is also a noun: 'a close paraphrase'. Tutors warn against patchwriting, which means only swapping a few words in the original sentence.
Examples
Try to paraphrase the main argument instead of quoting the whole paragraph.
This sentence is paraphrased from Smith (2019), so it still needs a citation.
Usage note
A paraphrase is about the same length as the original; a summary is much shorter and covers only the main points.
Common phrases
paraphrase a source · paraphrase an argument · close paraphrase · accurately paraphrase
A short reference inside the main text, such as (Yılmaz, 2021) or a number [3], that points the reader to the full entry in the reference list.
Where you use it
Its form depends on the citation style: author-date styles such as APA and Harvard use the surname and year, while numeric styles such as IEEE and Vancouver use numbers. Citations can be parenthetical, at the end of a sentence, or narrative: 'Yılmaz (2021) found...'.
Examples
Every in-text citation must match an entry in the reference list.
For a direct quotation, add the page number to the in-text citation: (Kaya, 2019, p. 45).
Common phrases
parenthetical citation · narrative citation · add an in-text citation · format in-text citations
The exact words of a source copied into your text, marked with quotation marks or set as an indented block, and followed by a citation with a page number.
Where you use it
Used sparingly in most disciplines, usually when the exact wording matters, such as a definition or a striking phrase. In APA style, quotations of 40 words or more are set as block quotations without quotation marks. People often shorten it to quote.
Examples
Avoid long direct quotations in the literature review; paraphrase instead.
The direct quotation on page 12 needs a page number in the citation.
Usage note
In careful writing, quotation is the noun and quote is the verb, but 'a quote' is widely accepted as a noun.
Common phrases
use a direct quotation · block quotation · quotation marks · short direct quotation
Ten questions from this glossary. Pick the right meaning for each term and see your score.
How to learn academic english & research vocabulary
Read recent articles in your own discipline and notice how authors introduce their aims, report findings and hedge their claims; borrow the patterns, not the sentences.
Keep a phrase notebook organized by article section (introduction, methods, results, discussion) so that you can find the right expression when you write.
Learn words together with their partners: you conduct research, draw conclusions and address a research gap. Collocations make academic writing sound natural.
Find out early which style guide your department or target journal uses (APA, MLA, Chicago, IEEE) and learn its citation rules instead of fixing references at the end.
Practice paraphrasing short paragraphs from your sources, then compare your version with the original to check that the wording and sentence structure are really your own.
Frequently asked questions
What is the difference between a thesis and a dissertation?
Both are long research projects written for a degree. In the US, a thesis is usually written for a master's degree and a dissertation for a doctorate; in the UK it is often the other way round, and a PhD project is normally called a thesis. In Turkish both are simply 'tez'.
Is 'researches' correct in academic English?
As a noun, research is normally uncountable in academic writing, so say 'a lot of research', 'several studies' or 'a piece of research' rather than 'researches'. The verb form is fine: 'She researches urban migration.'
How do I avoid plagiarism when writing in a second language?
Take notes in your own words, put quotation marks around anything you copy exactly, and cite the source of every idea you borrow, including paraphrased ones. Changing a few words in a copied sentence still counts as plagiarism.
What does hedging mean in academic writing?
Hedging means using cautious language such as may, might, appear to, suggest or to some extent so that a claim matches the strength of the evidence. Academic readers expect it, and writing that sounds too certain can seem unscientific.
Should I write 'data is' or 'data are'?
Both are used. Many style guides in the sciences, including APA, treat data as plural ('the data are'), while 'data is' is common in general and business English. Writers follow the usage of their journal or department and stay consistent.
