English for readers of political news and political science students
Politics & Government Vocabulary: 100 Key English Terms
Political news, parliamentary debates and political science textbooks share a core vocabulary that comes up again and again: elections, parties, bills, coalitions, opposition and accountability. This glossary explains the essential terms of political systems, elections and campaigns, parliament and legislation, government and opposition, and policy debates, with natural Turkish equivalents and neutral example sentences. It is written for readers who follow political news in English and for political science students.
100 terms
10 topics
60 core terms
202 example sentences
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Political Systems
politics
noun
Meaning
The activities, ideas and debates connected with how a country or community is governed, how power is won and used, and how public decisions are made.
Where you use it
A very broad word used in news, university courses and everyday talk. People go into politics, talk politics or study politics, and we speak of local, national and international politics. It usually takes a singular verb: politics is...
Examples
She worked as a teacher for twenty years before going into politics.
Our first-year course covers comparative politics and political theory.
Local politics often affects people's daily lives more directly than national debates.
Usage note
Turkish politika covers both politics and policy. Politics is the process and struggle of governing; a policy is a specific plan, such as an education policy. A person who works in politics is a politician, and the adjective is political.
Common phrases
go into politics · local politics · national politics · party politics · talk politics
A system of government in which power belongs to the people, who choose their leaders in free elections and can replace them; also a country governed in this way.
Where you use it
A central word in political science and news. Textbooks distinguish direct democracy, where citizens decide issues themselves, from representative democracy, where they elect people to decide for them. Writers speak of strengthening or defending democracy. The word comes from Greek demos (people) and kratos (power).
Examples
In a representative democracy, citizens elect others to make laws on their behalf.
The seminar looks at how young democracies build trust in their institutions.
Usage note
The adjective is democratic, and a supporter of democracy is a democrat. Written with a capital D, Democrat is usually part of a party name, so check the context.
A country considered as a political organization with its own government, laws and territory; also the permanent institutions that govern it.
Where you use it
Used in political science (the modern state, the role of the state) and in news (state institutions, state-owned companies, head of state). In federal countries such as the United States, a state is also one of the regions with its own government.
Examples
In this course we examine how the role of the state changed after the Second World War.
The report calls for closer cooperation between state institutions and local councils.
Usage note
State is not the same as government. The government changes after elections, but the state and its institutions continue. In federal countries, a state is a region, which Turkish calls eyalet.
Common phrases
head of state · state institutions · nation state · state-owned · the role of the state
A state in which power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and the head of state is not a king or queen but usually an elected president.
Where you use it
Used in country names and in political science. A country becomes or proclaims a republic. Common phrases are parliamentary republic and presidential republic. The word comes from Latin res publica, meaning the public matter.
Examples
The country became a republic after the monarchy was abolished.
Students compared parliamentary republics with constitutional monarchies.
Common phrases
proclaim a republic · parliamentary republic · presidential republic · Republic Day
A system in which a king, queen or other hereditary ruler is the head of state; also a country with this system.
Where you use it
Political science separates absolute monarchy, where the ruler holds real power, from constitutional monarchy, where the monarch is mainly a symbol and an elected parliament and government make the decisions. A monarchy can be abolished or restored.
Examples
In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch signs laws but does not decide on them.
The history course covers the end of the monarchy and the founding of the republic.
A system of government in which the government comes from parliament and must keep the support of a majority there to stay in power.
Where you use it
Used when comparing systems of government. In a parliamentary system the prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party or coalition, and parliament can remove the government with a vote of no confidence. The head of state is a separate, often ceremonial figure.
Examples
In a parliamentary system, the government can fall if it loses a confidence vote.
The lecture compared the parliamentary system with the presidential model.
Common phrases
parliamentary system of government · parliamentary democracy · move to a parliamentary system
A system of government in which an elected president leads the executive, is separate from the legislature and cannot normally be removed by a vote of no confidence.
Where you use it
Used in comparative politics. In a presidential system the president is both head of state and head of government and is elected separately from the legislature for a fixed term. Systems that mix features of both models are often called semi-presidential.
Examples
In a presidential system, the president and the legislature are elected separately.
The chapter explains how a presidential system handles conflict between the executive and the legislature.
Common phrases
presidential system of government · semi-presidential system · presidential republic
The highest authority of a state to govern itself and make its own laws without outside control; also the idea of where final political authority lies, for example with the people.
Where you use it
Used in political theory, constitutional law and international relations. People speak of national sovereignty, popular sovereignty (power belongs to the people) and parliamentary sovereignty. States defend, share or give up some sovereignty, for example when they join international organizations.
Examples
The lecture explained the difference between popular sovereignty and parliamentary sovereignty.
Joining the organization means sharing some sovereignty in areas such as trade.
Usage note
The g is silent: SOV-ren-tee. The adjective sovereign also appears in finance, as in sovereign debt, meaning debt owed by a government.
Common phrases
national sovereignty · popular sovereignty · parliamentary sovereignty · respect sovereignty · sovereignty over
A system in which power is divided between a central government and regional governments, such as states or provinces, each with its own responsibilities.
Where you use it
Used in political science and constitutional law. Germany, Canada and the United States are examples of federal states. The contrasting model is the unitary state, where power is concentrated at the centre. The adjective is federal: federal government, federal law.
Examples
Under federalism, education is often the responsibility of the regional governments.
The textbook compares federalism with the unitary model.
Common phrases
fiscal federalism · federal system · federal government · cooperative federalism
Describing a system or ruler that concentrates power in a few hands, limits political freedoms and does not allow real competition or opposition.
Where you use it
Used in political science to classify regimes, in phrases such as authoritarian regime, authoritarian rule and authoritarian state. The noun is authoritarianism. Researchers often place regimes on a scale from democratic to authoritarian. The word can also describe a very strict style of parenting or management.
Examples
The course compares how democratic and authoritarian regimes respond to economic crises.
In the novel, the author imagines everyday life under an authoritarian government.
An organized process in which people vote to choose a person or group for an official position, such as members of parliament, a president or a mayor.
Where you use it
Elections are called, held, won and lost. Common types are general, presidential, local and parliamentary elections. In news you also read that parties contest an election and that voters go to the polls.
Examples
The next general election must be held within five years.
She won the election by just over two thousand votes.
Usage note
Turkish seçim means both election and selection or choice. Use election only for voting for officials; for choosing a product or a person for a job, use selection or choice.
Common phrases
hold an election · win an election · general election · local elections · election results
A formal choice that a person makes in an election or meeting, for example by marking a ballot or raising a hand; also the act of deciding something in this way.
Where you use it
Used both as a noun and a verb. People vote for or against a candidate or proposal, cast their vote, and a party wins a share of the vote. In parliament a bill is put to a vote, and members vote on it.
Examples
Nearly two million people voted for the first time in this election.
The proposal was put to a vote and passed with 220 votes in favour.
Every vote counts in a close race.
Usage note
Say vote for a candidate, not vote to a candidate. The right to vote is also called suffrage, as in universal suffrage.
Common phrases
cast a vote · vote for · vote against · put something to a vote · share of the vote
A person who has the legal right to vote in an election, or who actually votes in one.
Where you use it
Used constantly in election coverage. Reports describe young, first-time, undecided or registered voters, and say that a party appeals to, wins over or loses voters. In some countries voters must register themselves before an election.
Examples
Voters will choose a new city council on Sunday.
Both parties are trying to win over young voters with promises on housing.
A person who is officially trying to be elected to a position, such as member of parliament, mayor or president.
Where you use it
Parties nominate, select or put forward candidates, and candidates stand (UK) or run (US) for office. News reports compare the leading candidates, independent candidates and presidential candidates.
Examples
Five candidates are standing in the mayoral election.
The party will announce its candidate for the capital next month.
Common phrases
presidential candidate · independent candidate · nominate a candidate · leading candidate · candidate list
A paper or electronic form on which a voter marks their choice; also the system or act of voting secretly in this way.
Where you use it
Voters cast or mark a ballot and put it in the ballot box. A secret ballot means no one can see how a person voted. In American English, a candidate or question that voters decide on is said to be on the ballot. British English also uses ballot paper.
Examples
Each voter receives one ballot and marks it in a private booth.
The ballots were counted in front of observers from every party.
Common phrases
secret ballot · ballot box · cast a ballot · ballot paper · on the ballot
A vote in which all citizens can decide directly on a single political question, such as a constitutional change, usually by answering yes or no.
Where you use it
A government calls or holds a referendum, and a proposal is put to a referendum. Results are reported as a yes or no vote with a percentage. Some referendums are binding, while others are only advisory. The plural is referendums or, more formally, referenda.
Examples
The constitutional change will only take effect if it is approved in a referendum.
Turnout in the referendum was higher than in the last local elections.
Common phrases
hold a referendum · call a referendum · referendum result · binding referendum · put something to a referendum
An area of a country that elects one or more representatives to parliament; also the voters who live there, or a group that supports a politician.
Where you use it
Common in British English: an MP represents a constituency and meets constituents there. American English usually says district. In a wider sense, constituency means a group of supporters, as in a party's core constituency.
Examples
She has represented the same constituency for fifteen years.
Each constituency elects one member of parliament.
Usage note
A constituent is one voter who lives in a constituency. Constituent also means one part of something, as in constituent parts, so check the context.
Common phrases
represent a constituency · constituency boundaries · marginal constituency · core constituency · local constituency
The number or percentage of eligible people who actually vote in an election or referendum.
Where you use it
Turnout can be high, low or a record, and it falls or rises. It is usually given as a percentage: turnout was 78%. Campaigns try to boost turnout among their supporters, and low turnout is often discussed as a sign of voter apathy.
Examples
Turnout was just 41% in the local elections, the lowest in decades.
Good weather helped push turnout above 80%.
Usage note
As a noun, turnout is one word. As a phrasal verb, it is two words: thousands turned out to vote.
Common phrases
voter turnout · high turnout · low turnout · record turnout · boost turnout
The authority to govern or to carry out a programme that voters are seen to give a party or leader by electing them; also the period this authority lasts.
Where you use it
Winners claim a clear or strong mandate, or a mandate for change. Critics may argue that a government has no mandate for a policy that was not in its manifesto. In international organizations, mandate also means the official task given to a body.
Examples
The new government says it has a clear mandate to reform the tax system.
Critics argue that such a narrow win is not a mandate for major change.
Usage note
Do not translate mandate as manda. In Turkish, manda refers to the historical mandate system of the League of Nations; in today's political news, mandate almost always means authority from voters.
Common phrases
a clear mandate · a strong mandate · a mandate for change · win a mandate · electoral mandate
The person who currently holds an official position, especially one who is standing for election again against new candidates.
Where you use it
A formal word frequent in election coverage. The incumbent defends their seat or faces a challenger, and analysts discuss the incumbency advantage. It is also used as an adjective: the incumbent mayor, the incumbent government.
Examples
The incumbent is seeking a second term as mayor.
Incumbents usually have an advantage because voters already know them.
Common phrases
the incumbent mayor · incumbent government · defeat the incumbent · incumbency advantage
An election victory in which one candidate or party wins a very large number of votes or seats, far more than its rivals.
Where you use it
Common in news headlines: win by a landslide, a landslide victory. Its literal meaning is a mass of earth and rock sliding down a hill, and the political use comes from this image of something overwhelming.
Examples
The party won by a landslide, taking almost two-thirds of the seats.
Few analysts predicted such a landslide.
Common phrases
win by a landslide · landslide victory · landslide win · electoral landslide
The building or room, often a school or community hall, where people go to vote on election day.
Where you use it
Polling stations open and close at set times, and voters queue outside them. Officials and party observers work there, and votes are often counted on site after the polls close. American English often says polling place.
Examples
Polling stations will open at 8 a.m. and close at 5 p.m.
Long queues formed outside polling stations in the city centre.
Common phrases
polling stations open · polling stations close · outside a polling station · polling station officials
To try to be elected to a public position, such as mayor, member of parliament or president, by standing as a candidate.
Where you use it
Mainly American English but widely understood. You run for office, run for president or run for mayor; you also run against an opponent and run on an issue or record. British English often uses stand for election or stand for parliament.
Examples
She decided to run for office after ten years of community work.
Young people who run for office often face high campaign costs.
Usage note
The past tense is ran: she ran for office twice. Avoid a word-for-word translation such as make candidacy; say run, stand or be a candidate.
Common phrases
run for president · run for mayor · run for re-election · run against · stand for election
All the people in a country or area who have the right to vote in an election.
Where you use it
A collective noun used in election analysis and news. Analysts describe the electorate as young, ageing, divided or volatile, and parties try to appeal to different parts of it. In British English it can take a singular or a plural verb.
Examples
About a quarter of the electorate is under thirty.
The party needs to reach a wider electorate beyond the big cities.
Usage note
The electorate is the whole group of voters; for one person, say voter. Do not confuse it with the adjective electoral, as in electoral system or electoral reform.
Common phrases
the electorate · a divided electorate · appeal to the electorate · a volatile electorate · the wider electorate
An election called earlier than planned, often because the government expects to do well or because a political crisis cannot be solved in any other way.
Where you use it
Leaders call a snap election, and news also uses early election. In parliamentary systems the prime minister may ask for parliament to be dissolved early, while in some systems parliament itself must vote for an early election.
Examples
The prime minister surprised everyone by calling a snap election for June.
Opposition parties are demanding a snap election after the coalition collapsed.
Common phrases
call a snap election · early election · snap general election · demand a snap election
An electoral system in which parties win seats in proportion to the share of the vote they receive, so that 20% of the votes gives roughly 20% of the seats.
Where you use it
Often shortened to PR. It is usually contrasted with first-past-the-post, where the candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins. PR tends to bring more parties into parliament and more coalition governments; many PR systems use party lists and an electoral threshold.
Examples
Under proportional representation, smaller parties have a better chance of winning seats.
The commission recommended a move from first-past-the-post to proportional representation.
Common phrases
system of proportional representation · party-list proportional representation · first-past-the-post · electoral reform
The minimum share of the vote, usually a percentage, that a party must win before it can receive any seats in parliament.
Where you use it
Used in systems of proportional representation. Parties pass, clear or fail to reach the threshold. Thresholds are meant to keep very small parties out of parliament, and their level, typically a few percent, is a frequent topic in debates on electoral reform.
Examples
Four parties cleared the 5% electoral threshold.
Lowering the electoral threshold would allow more parties into parliament.
Common phrases
pass the electoral threshold · clear the threshold · national threshold · lower the threshold · fall below the threshold
A planned series of activities, such as speeches, advertisements and meetings with voters, that a candidate or party carries out to win an election.
Where you use it
Campaigns are launched, run, funded and lost. Common expressions are election campaign, campaign promise and on the campaign trail (travelling around to meet voters). The word is also used for organized public efforts, such as a campaign for cleaner air.
Examples
The party launched its election campaign with a rally in the city centre.
During the campaign, she visited more than forty towns.
Usage note
Campaign is also a verb: candidates campaign for votes or campaign on an issue. The g is silent: kam-PAIN.
Common phrases
election campaign · launch a campaign · campaign promise · on the campaign trail · campaign funding
A survey in which a sample of people are asked questions to find out what the public thinks, for example which party they intend to vote for.
Where you use it
Often just called a poll. Polls are carried out and published, and they show a party ahead, behind or neck and neck. Results include a margin of error. Polling companies and pollsters run them, and a party can lead in the polls or fall in the polls.
Examples
The latest opinion poll puts the two main parties neck and neck.
Opinion polls suggest that most voters see healthcare as the top issue.
Usage note
The polls in the plural can also mean the election itself: voters go to the polls means they go to vote. An exit poll asks people how they voted as they leave the polling station.
Common phrases
conduct an opinion poll · latest opinion poll · lead in the polls · margin of error · exit poll
The views and attitudes that most people in a society hold about an issue, a policy or a political leader at a given time.
Where you use it
Public opinion shifts or turns against something, and politicians try to shape, influence or follow it. It is measured mainly by opinion polls. Reports often say that public opinion is divided on an issue.
Examples
Public opinion is divided over plans to close the old airport.
The government changed its approach after public opinion turned against the new tax.
Common phrases
shape public opinion · public opinion is divided · a shift in public opinion · public opinion research
A written statement in which a political party sets out its aims and the policies it promises to introduce if it wins an election.
Where you use it
Parties publish, launch or unveil a manifesto before an election, and its commitments are called manifesto pledges or promises. The word is mostly British; in American English a party's programme is called its platform.
Examples
The party's manifesto promises free public transport for students.
The tax cut was not in the manifesto, so the opposition says the government has no mandate for it.
Usage note
In political news, manifesto is an ordinary, neutral word for a party programme. It does not have the revolutionary or artistic feel that manifesto often has in Turkish.
Common phrases
election manifesto · manifesto pledge · launch a manifesto · manifesto commitment · party manifesto
A voter who does not always support the same party and may change their choice from one election to the next, so campaigns work hard to win them.
Where you use it
Used in campaign strategy and election analysis. Parties target swing voters with specific messages, and close elections are often said to be decided by them. A swing is the change in support between two elections, and a swing seat or swing state could go either way.
Examples
Both campaigns are focusing on swing voters in the suburbs.
Many swing voters decide only in the last week before the election.
Usage note
Turkish news often translates both swing voter and undecided voter as kararsız seçmen, but in English they differ: an undecided voter has not chosen yet, while a swing voter may have a clear choice but changes it between elections.
Common phrases
target swing voters · win over swing voters · swing seat · swing state
The ordinary members and supporters of a party or movement, as opposed to its leaders; also activity that starts with local people rather than with leaders.
Where you use it
Used as a plural noun (the party's grassroots) and very often as an adjective: grassroots campaign, grassroots movement, grassroots support. A grassroots campaign relies on volunteers, door-to-door work and small donations.
Examples
The party leader promised to listen more to the grassroots.
What began as a grassroots campaign for a new park now has support across the city.
Common phrases
grassroots campaign · grassroots movement · grassroots support · party grassroots
A large public meeting where a candidate or party leader gives a speech to supporters, or where people gather to show support for a cause.
Where you use it
Candidates hold, address or speak at rallies, and supporters attend them. News reports estimate crowd sizes and describe the atmosphere. As a verb, rally means to bring people together in support: the leader rallied her supporters.
Examples
Thousands of supporters attended the final rally of the campaign.
The candidate will hold rallies in three cities this weekend.
Usage note
Turkish miting comes from English meeting, but in English a political mass event is a rally. A meeting is a smaller gathering, such as a work meeting.
Common phrases
hold a rally · election rally · address a rally · campaign rally · attend a rally
To say publicly that you support a candidate, party, policy or proposal, usually hoping to persuade others to support it too.
Where you use it
Common in election news: a newspaper, union or former leader endorses a candidate. The noun is endorsement: win, receive or seek an endorsement. Endorse can also mean to approve formally, as in the committee endorsed the report.
Examples
The largest teachers' union has endorsed her candidacy.
The committee endorsed the plan but asked for more detail on costs.
Common phrases
endorse a candidate · publicly endorse · win an endorsement · formally endorse
A figure, usually a percentage from opinion polls, that shows how many people think a leader or government is doing a good job.
Where you use it
Approval ratings rise, fall, drop to a record low or recover. News reports compare them over time and between leaders. A similar expression is popularity rating.
Examples
The mayor's approval rating has risen to 58% since the new bus lines opened.
Approval ratings for the government fell sharply during the winter.
The elected body of representatives that makes a country's laws, approves the budget and checks the work of the government.
Where you use it
Parliament sits, debates, passes laws and can be dissolved before an election. Members are elected to parliament and sit in parliament. With a capital P it often refers to one specific national parliament. Some parliaments have two chambers, a lower and an upper house.
Examples
The bill will be debated in parliament next week.
She was first elected to parliament at the age of thirty-two.
Usage note
The ia in parliament is not pronounced as a separate syllable: say PAR-luh-ment. In the United States the national legislature is called Congress, not parliament.
Common phrases
elected to parliament · dissolve parliament · member of parliament · a seat in parliament · parliament passes a law
A written proposal for a new law or a change to an existing law, which parliament discusses and votes on before it can become law.
Where you use it
A bill is introduced or tabled, debated, amended, voted on and then passed or rejected. In many systems it goes through several readings and a committee stage. Once passed and signed, it becomes an act or a law.
Examples
The bill passed its first reading by a narrow margin.
Opposition MPs have proposed several amendments to the housing bill.
Usage note
Bill also means an invoice (a restaurant bill) and, in American English, a banknote (a ten-dollar bill). In politics it always means a proposed law.
Common phrases
introduce a bill · pass a bill · draft bill · the bill becomes law · vote on a bill
Laws in general, or a particular law or group of laws made by a parliament or other law-making body; also the process of making them.
Where you use it
A formal word, common in news and official documents. Governments introduce, pass and enforce legislation, and texts refer to new, existing and national legislation. The related verb is legislate and the adjective is legislative.
Examples
The government plans to introduce legislation to protect online consumers.
Under current legislation, the mayor serves a four-year term.
Usage note
Legislation is uncountable: say a piece of legislation or new legislation, not a legislation or legislations.
Common phrases
introduce legislation · pass legislation · new legislation · existing legislation · a piece of legislation
The larger part of a group, especially more than half of the seats in parliament or of the votes cast; also the number by which the winner is ahead of the others.
Where you use it
A party wins, holds, loses or increases its majority. An absolute majority means more than half; a simple majority means more votes for than against; a qualified majority, such as two-thirds, is needed for some important decisions. The opposite is minority.
Examples
The ruling party lost its majority after three MPs resigned.
The amendment needs a two-thirds majority to pass.
Common phrases
absolute majority · simple majority · two-thirds majority · win a majority · lose its majority
Short for member of parliament: a person elected by voters in a particular area to represent them in parliament.
Where you use it
Very common in British and Commonwealth news. MPs sit in parliament, vote on bills, ask ministers questions and represent their constituency. The plural is MPs. In the United States the equivalents are members of Congress, representatives and senators.
Examples
More than a hundred MPs signed a letter asking for a debate on the issue.
The MP for the northern district held a meeting with local farmers.
Usage note
MP is said letter by letter: em-pee. In some contexts, especially in American English, MP also means military police.
Common phrases
opposition MPs · elected as an MP · local MP · government MPs · senior MP
The elected body with the power to make, change and repeal laws, such as a parliament, congress or national assembly.
Where you use it
A general, formal term in political science and comparative writing, because it covers parliaments, congresses and assemblies. Legislatures can be unicameral (one chamber) or bicameral (two chambers). Federal countries also have regional or state legislatures.
Examples
The legislature has two chambers: an elected lower house and a smaller upper house.
The new law gives the legislature more control over the budget.
Common phrases
national legislature · state legislature · bicameral legislature · unicameral legislature
A change made to a bill, a law or a constitution, or a formal proposal for such a change that is discussed and voted on.
Where you use it
MPs table, propose, debate, accept or reject amendments to a bill. A constitutional amendment changes the constitution and usually needs a larger majority or a referendum. In the United States, the numbered changes to the constitution have names such as the First Amendment.
Examples
The opposition tabled an amendment to delay the new tax by one year.
A constitutional amendment requires the support of two-thirds of MPs.
Common phrases
table an amendment · constitutional amendment · accept an amendment · propose an amendment · amendment to the bill
A formal discussion in which people, such as MPs or candidates, present different views on a subject, often before a decision or a vote.
Where you use it
Parliament holds debates on bills and motions, and MPs speak in a debate. Candidates take part in televised debates during a campaign. Debate is also a verb: the bill will be debated tomorrow. Public debate means wider discussion in society.
Examples
The debate on the education bill lasted more than seven hours.
The two candidates will meet in a televised debate next Thursday.
Usage note
For parliament, Turkish uses görüşme or müzakere rather than tartışma, which can sound like a quarrel. A debate is formal and follows rules.
Common phrases
parliamentary debate · televised debate · hold a debate · public debate · heated debate
The official right of a person or body to reject a law or decision; also the act of using this right to stop it.
Where you use it
Used as a noun and a verb: the president vetoed the bill, or used a veto. In some systems the legislature can override a veto with a larger majority. In some international organizations, certain members have a veto over particular decisions.
Examples
The president vetoed the bill and sent it back to parliament.
Parliament needs a two-thirds majority to override the veto.
Common phrases
veto a bill · use a veto · override a veto · veto power · right of veto
The person chosen to chair the meetings of a parliament or one of its chambers, keep order during debates and represent the chamber officially.
Where you use it
Usually written with a capital S as a title: the Speaker, the Speaker of the House. The Speaker calls MPs to speak, rules on questions of procedure and announces the results of votes. In many parliaments the Speaker is expected to be impartial.
Examples
The Speaker asked members to stay calm and let the minister finish.
MPs will elect a new Speaker when parliament returns in October.
Usage note
Do not confuse the Speaker with a spokesperson. The Speaker chairs parliament; a spokesperson speaks to the media on behalf of an organization.
Common phrases
the Speaker of the House · elect a Speaker · deputy speaker · Parliament Speaker
A small group of members of parliament or another body who examine bills, investigate issues and report back on a particular area of work.
Where you use it
Bills go to committee or reach the committee stage. MPs sit on or chair a committee, and committees hold hearings, call witnesses and publish reports. Common types are select committees, standing committees and budget committees.
Examples
The health committee will question the minister about hospital waiting lists.
The bill was approved in committee with only minor changes.
Usage note
Spelling trap: committee has a double m, a double t and a double e.
Common phrases
committee stage · sit on a committee · select committee · committee hearing · committee report
The group of people who run a country at a given time, led by a prime minister or president; more broadly, the system and institutions through which a state is governed.
Where you use it
Governments are formed, elected, brought down and replaced. In British English it often means the prime minister and ministers, and it can take a plural verb: the government are... In American English the president's team is usually called the administration, and government is used more broadly.
Examples
The government has announced a new plan to cut waiting times in hospitals.
After weeks of talks, the two parties agreed to form a government together.
Usage note
Government is the people in power; the state is the permanent structure (institutions, territory, laws) that remains when governments change. Turkish speakers sometimes use government where English needs state, or the other way round.
Common phrases
form a government · central government · government spending · bring down the government · government minister
A senior member of the government who is responsible for a particular area of policy, such as health, education or finance, and usually leads a ministry.
Where you use it
Ministers are appointed, sworn in, resign or are dismissed. Titles follow the pattern Minister of Health or Health Minister, Foreign Minister, Interior Minister. A junior minister supports a senior minister in a department.
Examples
The education minister visited three schools to discuss the new curriculum.
She was appointed minister of transport in the new government.
Usage note
In the United States, the heads of government departments are called secretaries; the Secretary of State does the job of a foreign minister. Minister can also mean a religious leader in some Christian churches.
Common phrases
appoint a minister · foreign minister · health minister · junior minister · minister responsible for
The leader of the government in many countries, usually the head of the largest party or coalition in parliament, who chairs the cabinet.
Where you use it
Often shortened to PM in news. The prime minister is appointed or elected by parliament, forms a cabinet, answers questions in parliament and may resign or call an early election. In parliamentary systems the prime minister is the head of government, while a president or monarch is the head of state.
Examples
The prime minister will meet business leaders to discuss the energy plan.
The new prime minister announced her cabinet on Monday.
Common phrases
deputy prime minister · become prime minister · the prime minister's office · acting prime minister
The head of state in a republic. In presidential systems the president also leads the government, while in parliamentary systems the role is often mainly ceremonial.
Where you use it
Presidents are elected, sworn in, serve a term and may be re-elected. The word takes a capital letter before a name or as a title: the President. It also means the head of an organization or club and, in American English, of a university or company.
Examples
The president signed the law after it passed both houses.
Voters will elect a new president in the spring.
Common phrases
elect a president · presidential election · vice president · the office of president · presidential palace
The group of senior ministers, led by the prime minister or president, who meet regularly to decide government policy.
Where you use it
The cabinet meets, discusses and approves decisions. A leader forms or reshuffles a cabinet, and a cabinet minister is a minister who sits in it. Decisions are often presented as collective: the cabinet agreed...
Examples
The cabinet will discuss the draft budget at Thursday's meeting.
Two new faces joined the cabinet after the reshuffle.
Usage note
Cabinet also means a cupboard with shelves or drawers, as in a kitchen cabinet or a filing cabinet.
Common phrases
cabinet meeting · cabinet minister · form a cabinet · cabinet reshuffle · shadow cabinet
The branch of government that puts laws into effect and runs the country day to day, made up of the head of government, ministers and their departments.
Where you use it
Used with the: the executive, the legislature and the judiciary are the three branches of government. As an adjective it appears in executive power, executive order and executive branch.
Examples
The constitution limits the power of the executive to spend money without parliament's approval.
In this system, the executive is accountable to parliament.
Usage note
In business English an executive is a senior manager. In politics, the executive is a branch of government.
Common phrases
the executive branch · executive power · executive order · head of the executive
The person who officially represents a country at home and abroad, such as a president or monarch; in some systems the role is mainly ceremonial.
Where you use it
Used in political science and diplomatic news. Heads of state receive ambassadors, sign laws, make state visits and represent the nation at ceremonies. In parliamentary systems the head of state and the head of government are different people.
Examples
As head of state, the president receives the credentials of new ambassadors.
The summit brought together heads of state from twenty countries.
Common phrases
heads of state · ceremonial head of state · act as head of state · state visit
The person who leads the government and runs its daily work, such as a prime minister or, in presidential systems, the president.
Where you use it
Used in political science and international news, especially when comparing systems. The head of government chooses ministers, chairs cabinet meetings and is responsible for policy. Summits are often described as meetings of heads of state and government.
Examples
In a parliamentary system, the head of government needs the support of a majority in parliament.
In this country the president is both head of state and head of government.
Common phrases
heads of state and government · act as head of government · serve as head of government
A government department that is responsible for one area of public policy, such as health, education or finance, and is led by a minister.
Where you use it
Common in official names: the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. News reports quote ministry officials, spokespeople and statements. British English also uses department, and American English almost always does: the Department of State.
Examples
The ministry published new guidelines for school safety.
A ministry spokesperson said the figures would be released next week.
Common phrases
ministry officials · Ministry of Health · ministry spokesperson · ministry statement
The system of councils and officials that run public services and make decisions for a particular city, town or region rather than for the whole country.
Where you use it
Local government handles services such as rubbish collection, roads, parks and local planning. Councillors are chosen in local elections, and central government often funds part of the budget. The leader is usually a mayor.
Examples
Local government is responsible for most public parks and libraries.
The report calls for more funding for local government.
Common phrases
local government funding · local government elections · central and local government · local council
The fixed period of time during which an elected or appointed person, such as a president, mayor or MP, holds an official position.
Where you use it
Often shortened to term. Officials serve a term, a full term or a second term, and constitutions may set term limits, the maximum number of terms a person can serve. A term can end early through resignation or an early election.
Examples
The mayor's term of office ends in March.
Members of the board serve a single term of office lasting six years.
Common phrases
serve a term · second term · term limits · full term · end of the term
A change in which a prime minister or president moves ministers to different jobs, removes some of them and brings new people into the cabinet.
Where you use it
Common in British and international news: a cabinet reshuffle, a major or minor reshuffle. Leaders carry out a reshuffle, and ministers are moved, promoted or dropped in it. Reshuffle is also a verb: the prime minister reshuffled her cabinet.
Examples
In the reshuffle, the health minister moved to the foreign ministry.
A cabinet reshuffle is expected after the summer break.
Common phrases
cabinet reshuffle · carry out a reshuffle · major reshuffle · reshuffle the cabinet
A government formed by a party or coalition that does not have a majority of seats in parliament and depends on support from other parties to pass laws.
Where you use it
Used when no party wins a majority, a situation called a hung parliament in British English. A minority government may make a confidence-and-supply agreement with another party, which promises to support it on key votes such as the budget.
Examples
The minority government needs the votes of at least one other party to pass the budget.
Minority governments can last for years if they negotiate carefully with other parties.
Common phrases
form a minority government · lead a minority government · hung parliament · confidence-and-supply agreement
An organized group of people with similar political aims and ideas who try to win elections so that they can form a government or influence policy.
Where you use it
Often shortened to party. People join, found, lead or leave a party; parties put forward candidates, publish programmes and win seats. News reports refer to the ruling party, the main opposition party and smaller parties.
Examples
Three political parties passed the threshold and entered parliament.
Under the new rules, political parties will have to publish their annual accounts online.
Common phrases
join a political party · found a party · party leader · party member · main opposition party
An arrangement in which two or more political parties agree to work together, especially to form a government when no single party has a majority.
Where you use it
Parties form, enter or leave a coalition, and a coalition can collapse. The parties are coalition partners and negotiate a coalition agreement. Coalition governments are common under proportional representation.
Examples
The two parties signed a coalition agreement after three weeks of talks.
The coalition collapsed when the smaller partner withdrew its ministers.
Usage note
In news, coalition can also mean any alliance of groups, such as a coalition of charities, not only parties in government.
Common phrases
coalition government · coalition partner · form a coalition · coalition agreement · governing coalition
The political party that is in power and forms the government, either alone or as the largest member of a coalition.
Where you use it
A common phrase in international news. Similar expressions are governing party and the party in power. Reports describe the ruling party winning or losing seats, holding a majority or facing internal divisions.
Examples
The ruling party kept its majority but lost twelve seats.
Several ruling party MPs voted against the bill.
Common phrases
ruling party MPs · ruling coalition · ruling party leader · governing party
A connected set of ideas and beliefs about how society should be organized and what government should do, which guides a political group or movement.
Where you use it
A key term in political science. Courses compare the main political ideologies, and analysts describe parties as driven by ideology or as pragmatic. The adjective ideological appears in phrases such as ideological differences and ideological divide.
Examples
This module introduces the major political ideologies of the last two centuries.
The two parties agree on many practical issues despite their different ideologies.
Common phrases
political ideology · ideological differences · driven by ideology · ideological divide
Supporting political ideas usually linked with greater social and economic equality, a larger role for the state in the economy and stronger workers' rights.
Where you use it
Used for parties, politicians, newspapers and policies. Related expressions are the left, centre-left and far left. The terms come from the seating in the French National Assembly of 1789, where supporters of radical change sat on the left. What counts as left-wing varies from country to country.
Examples
The left-wing parties together won about a third of the seats.
Political scientists often place parties on a scale from left-wing to right-wing.
Usage note
Write it with a hyphen before a noun: a left-wing party. As a noun, say the left, not the left-wing.
Common phrases
left-wing party · centre-left · far left · left-wing policies · on the left
Supporting political ideas usually linked with free markets, lower taxes, a smaller economic role for the state and respect for tradition and established institutions.
Where you use it
Used for parties, politicians, voters and policies. Related expressions are the right, centre-right and far right. Like left-wing, its meaning depends on the country and the period, so careful writers often add more precise terms.
Examples
The centre-right and right-wing parties formed a joint list for the local elections.
The survey asked respondents to describe themselves as left-wing, centrist or right-wing.
Usage note
Centre-left and centre-right are British spellings; American English writes center-left and center-right.
Common phrases
right-wing party · centre-right · far right · right-wing policies · on the right
Preferring gradual change and valuing tradition and established institutions, often together with support for free markets and limited government; also used for a person with these views.
Where you use it
Used for parties, voters, values and policies, and as a noun for a person (a conservative). With a capital C it is often part of a party's name. In everyday English conservative also means cautious, as in a conservative estimate.
Examples
The party's more conservative members opposed the reform.
Officials gave a conservative estimate of the cost of the project.
Supporting individual rights and freedoms, tolerance of different views and gradual reform; its exact political meaning varies from country to country.
Where you use it
Used for people, parties, values and policies. In political theory, liberalism stresses individual liberty, the rule of law and limited government. Liberal democracy refers to a system with free elections and protected rights.
Examples
The course traces the development of liberal ideas from the seventeenth century.
Liberal democracy combines free elections with protection for minority rights.
Usage note
Be careful: in the United States liberal usually means centre-left, while in much of Europe it often describes support for free markets. Read the context before translating.
Common phrases
liberal democracy · liberal values · economic liberal · socially liberal · liberal reforms
Holding moderate political views between the left and the right, and usually preferring compromise and practical solutions to strong ideological positions.
Where you use it
Used for parties, politicians, voters and policies, and as a noun (a centrist). Related expressions are the centre ground and the political centre. Before an election, parties are often said to move to the centre or compete for the centre ground.
Examples
A new centrist party won seats for the first time.
Centrist voters often decide close elections.
Common phrases
centrist party · centrist voters · the centre ground · move to the centre
The parties in parliament that are not part of the government, especially the largest of them, whose role is to question the government and offer an alternative.
Where you use it
Often used with the: the opposition criticized the plan. News reports mention the main opposition party, the opposition leader and opposition MPs. A party that loses power goes into opposition; one that wins comes to power.
Examples
The opposition called for a full debate on the new budget.
After twelve years in opposition, the party finally won a majority.
Usage note
Opposition also has a general meaning, strong disagreement with something, as in opposition to the plan. The context shows whether it means a group of parties or simply disagreement.
Common phrases
the main opposition party · opposition leader · go into opposition · opposition MPs · in opposition
A vote in parliament to decide whether the government or a minister still has the support of a majority; if the government loses it, it may have to resign.
Where you use it
The opposition tables or calls a no-confidence motion, and the government survives or loses the vote. The phrase no-confidence vote is also common. A confidence vote is the reverse: the government asks parliament to confirm its support.
Examples
The government narrowly survived a vote of no confidence by four votes.
The opposition says it will call a no-confidence vote next week.
Common phrases
call a vote of no confidence · survive a vote of no confidence · lose a vote of no confidence · no-confidence motion · confidence vote
The duty of people in power to explain their decisions and actions, accept responsibility for them and face consequences if they act wrongly.
Where you use it
A key word in discussions of good government. People demand, increase or improve accountability, and texts refer to democratic, political and public accountability. The adjective is accountable: ministers are accountable to parliament.
Examples
The new rules are designed to improve accountability in public spending.
Regular elections are one way to ensure accountability.
Common phrases
democratic accountability · public accountability · improve accountability · lack of accountability · be accountable to
The quality of a government or organization being open about its decisions, spending and activities, so that the public can see and check them.
Where you use it
Used in debates on good government, public spending and elections. Officials promise greater transparency, and critics complain of a lack of transparency. The adjective is transparent: a transparent process.
Examples
The council will publish all contracts online to increase transparency.
Observers praised the transparency of the vote count.
Dishonest or illegal behaviour by people in positions of power, such as accepting bribes or using public money or office for private gain.
Where you use it
Used in news and reports on governance. People fight, tackle or investigate corruption, or are accused of it; there are corruption allegations, scandals and charges. Common related words are bribery and anti-corruption.
Examples
The city set up an independent office to investigate corruption in public tenders.
Students analysed how independent media help to expose corruption.
Careful and detailed examination of something, especially the way parliament, the media or the public check the actions and decisions of the government.
Where you use it
Common in parliamentary language. Bills and policies face, come under or are subject to scrutiny, and parliament carries out scrutiny of the government. Close, careful and public scrutiny are frequent phrases. The verb is scrutinize.
Examples
The plan will come under close scrutiny when the committee meets next month.
Parliamentary scrutiny of the budget is one of the opposition's main tools.
Common phrases
parliamentary scrutiny · come under scrutiny · close scrutiny · public scrutiny · subject to scrutiny
A formal process in which a legislature charges a president or other senior official with serious wrongdoing, which can lead to a trial and removal from office.
Where you use it
Used in constitutional law and news. A legislature begins or votes on impeachment proceedings; an official who is impeached may then be tried and removed. The exact procedure depends on each country's constitution.
Examples
Parliament voted to begin impeachment proceedings against the president.
The textbook explains the stages of impeachment step by step.
Usage note
Impeachment is the formal accusation, not the removal itself. An official can be impeached and still stay in office if the trial that follows does not convict them.
Common phrases
impeachment proceedings · impeachment trial · vote on impeachment · articles of impeachment
The basic set of laws and principles that sets out how a state is organized, what powers its institutions have and what rights its citizens enjoy.
Where you use it
Constitutions are drafted, adopted, amended and interpreted. A law that conflicts with the constitution can be declared unconstitutional by a court. Most countries have a single written constitution; a few rely on several laws and customs instead.
Examples
The constitution guarantees freedom of assembly and the right to a fair trial.
Changing the constitution requires a two-thirds majority in parliament.
Usage note
Constitution also means a person's physical health, as in a strong constitution. In politics, the adjective constitutional means related to or allowed by the constitution.
Common phrases
amend the constitution · draft a constitution · under the constitution · written constitution · constitutional amendment
A person who legally belongs to a country, has the rights it gives, such as voting, and has duties towards it, such as obeying its laws.
Where you use it
People are citizens of a country, become citizens or hold dual citizenship. Politicians and officials speak of citizens' rights, citizen participation and ordinary citizens. The legal status is citizenship.
Examples
Every citizen over eighteen has the right to vote.
The council wants more citizens to take part in decisions about local parks.
Common phrases
ordinary citizens · fellow citizens · dual citizenship · citizens' rights · become a citizen
The branch of the state made up of judges and courts, which interprets the law, settles disputes and decides whether laws and government actions are legal.
Where you use it
Used with the. Discussions often focus on an independent judiciary, judicial independence and judicial review, which is the power of courts to check laws against the constitution. The adjective is judicial.
Examples
An independent judiciary is one of the basic features of the rule of law.
The report examines how members of the judiciary are appointed in different countries.
Common phrases
an independent judiciary · judicial independence · judicial review · members of the judiciary
The principle that the legislative, executive and judicial powers of the state should be held by separate bodies, so that no single body becomes too powerful.
Where you use it
A core idea in constitutional law and political theory, often linked to the French thinker Montesquieu. It is closely related to checks and balances. Commentators debate whether a reform strengthens or weakens the separation of powers.
Examples
Under the separation of powers, parliament makes the laws, the government applies them and the courts interpret them.
Our essay question asks how the separation of powers works in a presidential system.
Common phrases
the separation of powers · principle of the separation of powers · strict separation of powers
The principle that everyone, including the government and its officials, must obey the law, and that laws are applied fairly by independent courts.
Where you use it
A central idea in political science, law and international reports. People uphold, respect, strengthen or undermine the rule of law. It is often mentioned together with democracy, human rights and an independent judiciary.
Examples
The rule of law means that no official is above the law.
The lecture explained why investors care about the rule of law.
Common phrases
uphold the rule of law · respect for the rule of law · strengthen the rule of law · undermine the rule of law
The basic rights and freedoms that every person has simply because they are human, such as the right to life, liberty, a fair trial and freedom of thought.
Where you use it
Used in law, politics and international relations. States protect, respect or violate human rights, and there are human rights organizations, human rights law and human rights courts. A key text is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948.
Examples
The course covers the main international agreements on human rights.
Every new law is checked to make sure that it respects human rights.
Common phrases
protect human rights · human rights law · human rights organization · respect for human rights · fundamental rights
The right to hold opinions and to share ideas and information through speech, writing, art or the media without unjustified interference by the state.
Where you use it
Used in law and political debate, often together with freedom of the press and freedom of assembly. Courts consider whether a restriction on freedom of expression is necessary and proportionate. In everyday English, freedom of speech and free speech are close equivalents.
Examples
The constitution protects freedom of expression and freedom of the press.
The seminar discussed how freedom of expression applies to social media.
Common phrases
right to freedom of expression · protect freedom of expression · restrictions on freedom of expression · freedom of the press
A system in which each branch of government can limit the powers of the others, so that no single person or institution can control everything.
Where you use it
Used in constitutional law and political analysis, closely linked to the separation of powers. Examples include a president's veto, parliament's power to approve the budget and the courts' power to review laws. Commentators discuss whether checks and balances are strong, weak or working.
Examples
Checks and balances prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful.
The essay asks you to evaluate the checks and balances in a presidential system.
Common phrases
a system of checks and balances · strong checks and balances · constitutional checks and balances
A high court whose main job is to decide whether laws and government actions are in line with the constitution, and to cancel those that are not.
Where you use it
Many countries have a constitutional court; in others, such as the United States, the supreme court does this work. Laws are challenged in, referred to or annulled by the constitutional court, and its rulings are usually final.
Examples
The opposition asked the constitutional court to review the new election law.
The constitutional court ruled that parts of the law were unconstitutional.
Common phrases
appeal to the constitutional court · constitutional court ruling · rule something unconstitutional · strike down a law
A plan or set of principles that a government, party or organization adopts to deal with a particular issue, such as education, housing or energy.
Where you use it
Policies are developed, introduced, announced, changed and reversed. Common combinations are foreign policy, economic policy, government policy and policy change. The people who design policies are called policymakers.
Examples
The ministry is reviewing its policy on school meals.
Both parties say energy policy will be a priority after the election.
Usage note
Policy is the plan; politics is the process and the struggle for power. In everyday English, policy also means an insurance contract or a company rule, as in a refund policy.
The decisions, plans and actions of government on issues that affect the public, such as health, education, transport and the environment; also the academic study of these.
Where you use it
Used in universities, think tanks and government. People study, analyse, shape or evaluate public policy. Degree programmes are often called Public Policy or Public Administration, and researchers write policy papers and policy briefs.
Examples
She has a master's degree in public policy and works for a research institute.
Good public policy depends on reliable data.
Common phrases
public policy research · shape public policy · evaluate public policy · public policy debate
Organized efforts by companies, organizations or interest groups to influence the decisions of politicians and officials, for example by meeting them or providing information.
Where you use it
The verb is lobby: groups lobby the government or lobby for a change. People who do it professionally are lobbyists. Many countries have lobbying rules, such as public registers of lobbyists and their meetings.
Examples
Farmers' groups have been lobbying for lower fuel taxes.
New rules require all lobbying meetings with ministers to be published online.
Common phrases
lobbying group · lobby the government · lobby for · lobbying rules · intense lobbying
A change to a law, system or institution that is intended to improve it, such as changes to the tax, pension or education system.
Where you use it
Governments introduce, carry out, push through or block reforms, and there are economic, political, electoral and constitutional reforms. Reform is also a verb: reform the system. People who support reform are called reformers.
Examples
The government plans a major reform of the pension system.
Electoral reform was the main topic of the conference.
Usage note
Reform means a change that improves something. Do not confuse it with re-form, written with a hyphen, which means to form again, as in the group re-formed after a year.
Common phrases
carry out reforms · pension reform · electoral reform · push through reforms · reform package
An organized group, such as a trade union, business association or charity, that tries to influence government policy in favour of a particular cause or part of society.
Where you use it
Used in political science to describe how policy is shaped. Interest groups lobby ministers, run campaigns and give evidence to committees. Pressure group is a close synonym, especially in British English, while special interests is often used critically.
Examples
Several interest groups gave evidence to the committee on the new energy law.
Business interest groups welcomed the reform, while unions criticized it.
Common phrases
interest group politics · powerful interest groups · business interest groups · pressure group
The organizations and groups outside government and business through which citizens act together, such as charities, associations, unions and community groups.
Where you use it
Used in political science, development work and official reports. Governments consult civil society, and civil society organizations (CSOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) take part in public debate. A strong civil society is often seen as a sign of a healthy democracy.
Examples
The ministry invited civil society groups to comment on the draft law.
Civil society played an important role in organizing help after the floods.
Common phrases
civil society organizations · consult civil society · a strong civil society · civil society groups
General agreement among all or most of the people or groups involved in a decision.
Where you use it
People reach, build or seek a consensus, and a consensus can break down. There may be a broad, cross-party or political consensus on an issue. Consensus politics describes a style of government that tries to include many groups in decisions.
Examples
After long talks, the parties reached a consensus on the new election rules.
There is a broad consensus that the city needs more affordable housing.
Usage note
Consensus already means general agreement, so general consensus is repetitive in careful writing. Spelling trap: consensus, not concensus.
Involving or supported by two political parties that usually oppose each other, especially the main government and opposition parties.
Where you use it
Common in American political news, where it usually refers to agreement between the two main parties: bipartisan support, a bipartisan bill. When more than two parties are involved, British English usually says cross-party.
Examples
The bill passed with bipartisan support.
A bipartisan group of senators is working on a plan for road repairs.
Usage note
Partisan, without bi-, means strongly supporting one party, often in a biased way, much like Turkish partizan: a partisan attack.
Common phrases
bipartisan support · bipartisan agreement · bipartisan bill · cross-party
A meeting arranged by a politician or organization at which they make an announcement to journalists and answer their questions.
Where you use it
Politicians hold or give a press conference, and journalists attend it and ask questions. News conference is also common, especially in American English; a short regular update is a press briefing, and two leaders may give a joint press conference.
Examples
The minister will hold a press conference at noon to announce the results.
At a joint press conference, the two leaders announced a new trade agreement.
Common phrases
hold a press conference · joint press conference · call a press conference · at a press conference · press briefing
A person whose job is to speak officially to journalists and the public on behalf of a government, party or organization.
Where you use it
News reports quote a government, ministry or party spokesperson, often without giving a name. Spokesman and spokeswoman are also used. In British politics, an opposition spokesperson on health or education is the party's main voice on that subject.
Examples
A government spokesperson said no decision had been made yet.
The party's spokesperson on education will reply to the minister's speech.
Common phrases
government spokesperson · party spokesperson · a spokesperson for · official spokesperson
To leave a job or official position by your own decision, usually by formally telling the people you work for.
Where you use it
Ministers resign from the government or resign over an issue, and there may be calls for someone to resign. The noun is resignation: hand in, offer or accept a resignation. In news it often follows a scandal, a policy disagreement or an election defeat.
Examples
The transport minister resigned after the report on the rail project was published.
Opposition MPs called on the minister to resign.
Usage note
The g is silent: ri-ZINE. Resign (to leave a job) is different from re-sign with a hyphen, which means to sign again, as in re-sign a contract.
Common phrases
resign from · resign over · calls to resign · hand in a resignation · be forced to resign
To leave an important position, especially a leading one, often in a planned way rather than by being forced out.
Where you use it
Very common in news headlines: a leader steps down as party chair or steps down from a post. It sounds softer and more neutral than resign. British English also uses stand down, especially for candidates and MPs who decide not to stand again.
Examples
The party leader announced that she would step down after the next election.
He stepped down as chair of the committee to spend more time with his family.
Common phrases
step down as leader · step down from · agree to step down · announce plans to step down
A situation in which opinions in a society or parliament divide into two strongly opposed groups, with less and less common ground between them.
Where you use it
Common in political science and analysis. Researchers measure growing, deep or political polarization. The verb is polarize and the adjective polarized: a polarized debate. It is often discussed together with social media and declining trust in institutions.
Examples
The study looks at how polarization affects cooperation between parties in parliament.
Some researchers argue that political polarization makes compromise harder.
Usage note
Polarization is the American spelling; British English often writes polarisation. Both are correct, but use one spelling consistently.
Common phrases
political polarization · growing polarization · deep polarization · a polarized debate
A way of presenting information or events, especially to the media, that makes them look as favourable as possible for a politician, party or government.
Where you use it
An informal and usually critical word. Politicians put a positive spin on bad news, and journalists try to see through the spin. A spin doctor is an adviser whose job is to manage how the media reports events.
Examples
The government tried to put a positive spin on the disappointing figures.
Readers need to separate facts from spin during an election campaign.
Common phrases
put a positive spin on · spin doctor · media spin · see through the spin
A sudden and complete change in a government's or politician's policy or position, usually after criticism or pressure.
Where you use it
Very common in British political journalism, usually with a critical tone: the government made a U-turn on the tax. Its literal meaning is turning a vehicle round to go back the way it came. More neutral alternatives are reverse a decision and change course.
Examples
The ministry made a U-turn on school closing times after complaints from parents.
Critics called the decision a U-turn, but the minister said the plan had only been adjusted.
Common phrases
make a U-turn · a U-turn on · policy U-turn · dramatic U-turn
Ten questions from this glossary. Pick the right meaning for each term and see your score.
How to learn politics & government vocabulary
Read one short political news story in English every day and note the verbs that go with each noun: a bill is introduced, debated and passed; a minister is appointed, moved in a reshuffle or resigns; a party wins or loses seats.
Learn terms in pairs and contrasts: government and opposition, majority and minority, executive and legislature, left-wing and right-wing, parliamentary and presidential systems. Most political texts are built on these pairs.
Keep politics, policy, political and politician apart. Turkish politika covers both politics and policy, so check each time whether a text means the struggle for power or a specific plan.
Notice British and American differences: parliament and Congress, MP and representative, constituency and district, manifesto and platform, minister and secretary. Knowing both versions helps you follow news from different sources.
Compare official texts in two languages. Many parliaments, election authorities and courts publish documents in English, so you can match Turkish terms such as kanun teklifi, seçim çevresi and güvensizlik oyu with their English equivalents.
Frequently asked questions
What is the difference between politics, policy and political?
Politics is the whole field of activity around power and government: elections, parties, debates and the struggle for influence. A policy is a specific plan or set of decisions on one issue, such as housing policy or foreign policy. Political is the adjective (a political party, a political crisis), and a person who works in politics is a politician. Turkish politika is used for both politics and policy, which is why learners often mix them up.
Which political terms should I learn first to follow the news in English?
Start with the words that appear in almost every story: government, opposition, parliament, MP, minister, election, vote, voter, candidate, campaign, opinion poll, bill, majority and coalition. Then learn the verbs that go with them, such as win, lose, pass, reject, resign, call an election and form a government. With these few dozen words you can follow most headlines.
What is the difference between a president and a prime minister?
It depends on the system. In a parliamentary system the prime minister is the head of government and runs the country day to day, while the president or monarch is the head of state with a mostly ceremonial role. In a presidential system the president is both head of state and head of government, and there may be no prime minister at all. Semi-presidential systems share power between the two.
How is the Turkish parliament referred to in English?
Its official English name is the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye, sometimes abbreviated as GNAT, but news reports often simply say the Turkish parliament. Its members are called MPs, lawmakers or deputies, and the person who chairs it is the Speaker of Parliament. A bill is kanun teklifi, a committee is komisyon and the plenary session is Genel Kurul.
Do words like left, right, liberal and conservative mean the same thing everywhere?
No. They are useful descriptive labels, but their meaning depends on the country and the period. In the United States liberal usually means centre-left, while in much of Europe it often describes support for free markets. When you read or translate such words, look at the policies being described rather than relying on the label alone.
