International Relations & Diplomacy Vocabulary: 100 Key English Terms
International relations has its own working vocabulary, used every day in embassies, foreign ministries, international organisations, newsrooms and university classrooms. These terms cover how states conduct diplomacy, make and leave treaties, work inside the UN and other organisations, manage conflict and security, use sanctions and aid, and explain world politics through theory. Many of them carry a precise legal or diplomatic meaning, so choosing the right word matters as much as getting the grammar right.
100 terms
9 topics
42 core terms
300 example sentences
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Diplomacy & Embassies
diplomacy
noun
Meaning
The work of managing relations between countries through talks, agreements and official contacts rather than force; also the skill of dealing with people tactfully.
Where you use it
The basic word of the field. You 'conduct' or 'engage in' diplomacy, and many types are named with a modifier: public, economic, cultural or quiet diplomacy. In everyday English it also means tact.
Examples
Both governments say they want to solve the dispute through diplomacy.
Quiet diplomacy behind closed doors often achieves more than public statements.
She studied diplomacy in Geneva before joining the foreign service.
Usage note
The stress moves between related words: DIplomat, but diPLOmacy and diploMAtic.
An official who represents their country abroad or in international organisations, handling relations, negotiations and the protection of their country's interests and citizens.
Where you use it
Covers everyone from a junior third secretary to an ambassador. News reports quote anonymous sources as 'a senior diplomat' or 'diplomats familiar with the talks'. Careers are described with 'career diplomat' and 'join the diplomatic service'.
Examples
A senior diplomat told reporters that the talks would continue next week.
He is a career diplomat who has served in five countries.
Diplomats from both sides met quietly in a third country.
Common phrases
career diplomat · senior diplomat · junior diplomat · expel a diplomat · accredited diplomat
The main official mission of one country in another country's capital, led by an ambassador; also the building where this mission works.
Where you use it
Embassies handle political relations, trade, culture and press work; consular matters such as visas may be dealt with by a consular section inside the embassy. Common verbs: open, close, upgrade, contact. Official names follow the pattern 'the [country] Embassy in [city]'.
Examples
Citizens abroad can contact the embassy if they lose their passport.
The two countries agreed to reopen their embassies after a ten-year break.
She works in the trade section of the embassy.
Usage note
An embassy and a consulate are different offices: the embassy is in the capital and handles political relations, while consulates are often in other cities.
Common phrases
open an embassy · close an embassy · embassy staff · contact the embassy · embassy in the capital
The highest-ranking diplomat who represents their country in another country or at an international organisation, usually as head of an embassy or permanent mission.
Where you use it
An ambassador is appointed, presents credentials to the head of state, and can be summoned to the foreign ministry or recalled home. Addressed as 'Ambassador' or 'Your Excellency'. Used with 'to': ambassador to a country, ambassador to the UN.
Examples
The new ambassador presented her credentials to the president on Monday.
The ministry summoned the ambassador to ask for an explanation of the comments.
He served as ambassador to the United Nations for four years.
Usage note
The preposition is 'to': say 'ambassador to France', not 'ambassador in France'. The stress is on the second syllable: am-BASS-a-dor.
Common phrases
appoint an ambassador · summon the ambassador · recall an ambassador · ambassador to · outgoing ambassador
An office of a country in a foreign city that helps its own citizens there, issues visas and documents, and supports trade; it is led by a consul or consul general.
Where you use it
Consulates deal with practical matters: passports, visas, births, deaths and citizens in difficulty. A larger one is a 'consulate general'. Consular relations are governed by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963).
Examples
You need to apply for the visa at the consulate in Istanbul, not at the embassy in Ankara.
The consulate issued him an emergency travel document.
The consulate general also runs a busy trade office.
Common phrases
consulate general · consular section · apply at the consulate · honorary consulate · consular services
The government department responsible for a country's relations with other states, its diplomatic service and its embassies abroad.
Where you use it
The general term in news and IR writing. Official names differ: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), the Foreign Office in the UK (formally the FCDO) and the State Department in the US. A 'foreign ministry spokesperson' gives regular press briefings.
Examples
The foreign ministry issued a statement welcoming the agreement.
He joined the foreign ministry straight after university.
A foreign ministry spokesperson declined to comment on the reports.
Usage note
The minister is the 'foreign minister'; in the US the post is called 'Secretary of State' and in the UK 'Foreign Secretary'.
Common phrases
foreign ministry spokesperson · foreign ministry statement · Ministry of Foreign Affairs · summoned to the foreign ministry
The official connection between two states that allows them to exchange ambassadors, open embassies and deal with each other through normal diplomatic channels.
Where you use it
States establish, restore, upgrade, downgrade, suspend or break off diplomatic relations. The rules are set out in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961). Relations can also continue at a lower level, for example through a chargé d'affaires.
Examples
The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.
Diplomatic relations were restored after a five-year break.
The government decided to downgrade diplomatic relations to the level of chargé d'affaires.
Common phrases
establish diplomatic relations · break off diplomatic relations · restore diplomatic relations · full diplomatic relations · diplomatic ties
The legal protection that diplomats have in the country where they serve, which means they cannot be arrested or prosecuted there.
Where you use it
Based on the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961). The immunity belongs to the sending state, which can 'waive' it. If a diplomat abuses it, the host state's usual response is to declare them persona non grata. Immunity does not free diplomats from the duty to respect local laws.
Examples
The police could not detain the driver because he had diplomatic immunity.
The sending state agreed to waive his diplomatic immunity so that he could be tried.
Diplomatic immunity also covers family members who live with the diplomat.
A person sent by a government or international organisation on a special diplomatic mission, often to help with negotiations on a particular issue.
Where you use it
Most common in 'special envoy' and 'peace envoy'; for example, the UN Secretary-General appoints special envoys for particular crises. Headline writers also use 'envoy' as a short word for 'ambassador'.
Examples
The UN special envoy will visit both capitals next week.
The government appointed a special envoy for climate negotiations.
The envoy said that both sides had shown flexibility.
Common phrases
special envoy · peace envoy · appoint an envoy · UN envoy · presidential envoy
The formal rules of behaviour and ceremony in diplomacy, such as order of precedence and forms of address; also an additional agreement that amends or adds to a treaty.
Where you use it
In the first sense, foreign ministries have a protocol department and a 'chief of protocol' who organise visits and ceremonies. In the second sense, states sign and ratify an 'additional protocol' or 'optional protocol' to a convention.
Examples
According to protocol, the ambassador who has been in post longest sits closest to the host.
The chief of protocol met the delegation at the airport.
The country has signed the optional protocol to the convention.
Common phrases
diplomatic protocol · chief of protocol · breach of protocol · additional protocol · optional protocol
Efforts by a government to inform and influence people in other countries directly, through media, culture, education and exchanges, not only through other governments.
Where you use it
Embassies carry out public diplomacy through social media, cultural events, scholarships and press work. It is closely linked to soft power and 'nation branding'. 'Cultural diplomacy' and 'digital diplomacy' are related forms.
Examples
The embassy's public diplomacy team runs a student exchange programme.
Social media has changed the way public diplomacy is done.
Film festivals are a popular tool of public diplomacy.
Common phrases
public diplomacy campaign · cultural diplomacy · digital diplomacy · public diplomacy strategy
A Latin phrase meaning 'an unwelcome person': a diplomat whom the host country officially declares unacceptable, so that the sending state must recall them.
Where you use it
Based on Article 9 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961); the host state does not have to give reasons. The usual phrase is 'declare someone persona non grata', and the diplomat is given a short time to leave. Diplomats abbreviate it to PNG. It is also used informally for anyone unwelcome.
Examples
The host government declared two diplomats persona non grata and gave them 72 hours to leave.
Being declared persona non grata usually ends a diplomat's posting immediately.
In response, the other country declared one of the embassy's attachés persona non grata.
Usage note
The Latin plural is 'personae non gratae', but most writers avoid it: 'two diplomats were declared persona non grata'.
Common phrases
declare persona non grata · declared persona non grata · persona non grata status
A diplomat who heads an embassy when there is no ambassador, either temporarily while the ambassador is away or permanently when relations are kept at a lower level.
Where you use it
A temporary head is a 'chargé d'affaires ad interim', often just called 'the chargé'. When relations are downgraded, an embassy may be led by a chargé d'affaires instead of an ambassador. The phrase comes from French.
Examples
The chargé d'affaires was summoned to the ministry this morning.
Until the new ambassador arrives, her deputy will act as chargé d'affaires.
Relations were kept at the level of chargé d'affaires for several years.
Common phrases
chargé d'affaires ad interim · act as chargé d'affaires · summon the chargé d'affaires · at chargé d'affaires level
The formal letter from one head of state to another that introduces a new ambassador; the ambassador is fully recognised in the post after presenting it.
Where you use it
Used in the plural: 'present credentials', 'presentation of credentials'; the formal name is 'letters of credence'. A copy is usually given to the foreign minister first, and the ceremony takes place at the head of state's office. In everyday English 'credentials' also means qualifications.
Examples
The new ambassador presented her credentials at the presidential palace.
Five ambassadors presented their credentials at the same ceremony.
Before presenting his credentials, he gave a copy to the foreign minister.
Usage note
Outside diplomacy, 'credentials' means qualifications or login details: 'enter your credentials'.
Common phrases
present credentials · presentation of credentials · letters of credence · credentials ceremony
A member of an embassy's staff who specialises in a particular area, such as defence, trade, culture or press; in many foreign services also the most junior diplomatic rank.
Where you use it
Usually named with a field: military or defence attaché, commercial attaché, press attaché, cultural attaché. Specialist attachés often come from other ministries. The spelling 'attache' without the accent is also common.
Examples
The commercial attaché organised meetings with local importers.
She was posted abroad as a cultural attaché for three years.
The defence attaché attended the military exercise as an observer.
Usage note
An 'attaché case' is a briefcase, not a diplomatic term.
Common phrases
military attaché · commercial attaché · press attaché · cultural attaché · defence attaché
A government's goals and strategies for dealing with other countries and international organisations, and the decisions it takes to pursue them.
Where you use it
Used by officials, journalists and academics. A country 'conducts', 'shapes' or 'reviews' its foreign policy, and adjectives describe its direction: active, cautious, independent, pragmatic. Usually uncountable, but 'foreign policies' is possible when comparing countries.
Examples
The new government has promised a more active foreign policy in its region.
Trade is now at the centre of the country's foreign policy.
My thesis compares the foreign policy of two small European states after 1990.
Usage note
'Policy' is a plan or line of action; 'politics' is the activity of competing for power. Turkish 'politika' covers both, so check which one you mean.
The full right and power of a state to govern its own territory and people without outside interference; a basic principle of the modern international system.
Where you use it
Very frequent in diplomatic statements, treaties and IR theory. States 'respect', 'defend', 'claim' or 'violate' sovereignty; scholars speak of 'Westphalian sovereignty', after the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The adjective is 'sovereign': a sovereign state.
Examples
Both sides agreed to respect each other's sovereignty and borders.
Joining a union means sharing some sovereignty with the other members.
Critics say the agreement limits national sovereignty over fisheries.
Usage note
The 'g' is silent: /ˈsɒvrənti/. A common spelling mistake is 'sovereignity'; the correct form is 'sovereignty'.
Common phrases
respect sovereignty · violation of sovereignty · national sovereignty · state sovereignty · sovereign state
Involving two countries or two parties, as in bilateral relations, a bilateral agreement or a bilateral meeting between two leaders.
Where you use it
Used before nouns: bilateral relations, talks, trade, ties, visit. In diplomatic slang 'a bilateral' (noun) is a one-to-one meeting on the margins of a larger event. The opposite is 'multilateral'.
Examples
Bilateral trade between the two countries doubled in five years.
The ministers held a bilateral meeting before the conference opened.
Bilateral relations have improved since the new agreement was signed.
Involving three or more countries, or carried out through international organisations, as in multilateral talks, a multilateral treaty or multilateral cooperation.
Where you use it
Used for treaties, institutions and approaches to foreign policy. 'Multilateralism' is the view that shared problems are best handled through rules and institutions that many states accept. 'Plurilateral' describes a smaller group of several states.
Examples
The conference is the largest multilateral meeting on climate this year.
The country prefers bilateral deals to multilateral agreements.
Multilateral institutions such as the World Bank lend to developing countries.
What a government sees as most important for its country's security, prosperity and values, used to explain and justify foreign policy choices.
Where you use it
Used by officials ('this is in our national interest') and by realist theorists, for whom states act mainly to protect it. Often plural: 'vital national interests'. The concept is debated because deciding who defines it is itself political.
Examples
The minister said the deal was clearly in the national interest.
Realists argue that states always act according to their national interest.
The report asks how the national interest should be defined in a changing world.
Common phrases
in the national interest · vital national interests · protect the national interest · define the national interest
The person who represents a state at the highest level, such as a president or monarch; this role may or may not be held by the head of government as well.
Where you use it
Important in protocol: ambassadors present credentials to the head of state, and heads of state enjoy immunity abroad. 'Heads of state and government' is the usual phrase for summits. In parliamentary systems the prime minister is the 'head of government'.
Examples
More than 40 heads of state attended the opening ceremony.
In that country the monarch is head of state, while the prime minister leads the government.
The visit will include a meeting with the head of state.
Common phrases
heads of state and government · visiting head of state · state visit · head of state immunity
A country's ability to influence others through attraction, such as its culture, values, education and policies, rather than through force or payment.
Where you use it
The term was introduced by the American scholar Joseph Nye around 1990. Common in foreign policy and public diplomacy: films, universities, language courses and aid can all add to soft power. Its opposite is 'hard power'.
Examples
Scholarships for foreign students are a classic tool of soft power.
The country's television series have greatly increased its soft power in the region.
The report ranks countries according to their soft power.
Common phrases
exercise soft power · source of soft power · soft power strategy · cultural soft power
A country's ability to make others act in a certain way through military force or economic pressure, such as threats, sanctions or payments.
Where you use it
Used together with 'soft power' to compare the tools of foreign policy. Hard power can be military (armed forces, alliances) or economic (sanctions, trade restrictions, aid used as a reward). 'Coercion' is a related academic term.
Examples
Some analysts argue that hard power alone cannot win the support of foreign publics.
The country has invested heavily in hard power, especially its navy.
Sanctions are often described as a form of economic hard power.
Common phrases
use hard power · military hard power · hard and soft power · economic hard power
The study of how geography, such as location, borders, resources and sea routes, affects the power and foreign policy of states; also the power politics that results.
Where you use it
Very common in journalism and think-tank reports, sometimes loosely meaning 'international power politics'. The adjective 'geopolitical' appears in 'geopolitical risk', 'geopolitical tensions' and 'geopolitical importance'.
Examples
The canal's location gives it great geopolitical importance.
Investors are watching geopolitical risks more closely this year.
The course introduces the classic theories of geopolitics.
Usage note
Although it ends in -s, 'geopolitics' takes a singular verb: 'Geopolitics is…'.
A formal written agreement between states, or between states and international organisations, that is governed by international law and creates legal obligations.
Where you use it
A treaty is negotiated, signed, ratified and enters into force; states can later withdraw from it. Names vary (convention, pact, charter, protocol, covenant), but under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) its legal nature, not its title, makes it a treaty.
Examples
The two countries signed a treaty on the use of their shared river.
The treaty will enter into force once 30 states have ratified it.
Under the treaty, each party must report its emissions every year.
Usage note
Turkish IR language distinguishes 'antlaşma' (a treaty between states) from 'anlaşma' (agreement in general).
Common phrases
sign a treaty · ratify a treaty · peace treaty · under the treaty · withdraw from a treaty
To give formal final approval to a treaty, usually after a parliament agrees, so that the state becomes legally bound by it.
Where you use it
Signing shows a state's intention; ratifying makes the commitment binding. News reports say a parliament 'ratifies' a treaty, although the head of state often completes the process. The noun is 'ratification', and the official document deposited is the 'instrument of ratification'.
Examples
Parliament voted to ratify the agreement by a large majority.
Only twelve states have ratified the convention so far.
The government signed the treaty in 2019 but has not ratified it.
Usage note
Signing and ratifying are different steps; a state that has only signed is not yet a full party to the treaty.
Common phrases
ratify a treaty · ratification process · instrument of ratification · fail to ratify · ratified by parliament
A formal multilateral agreement between states on a specific subject, such as human rights or the law of the sea; legally it is a type of treaty.
Where you use it
Many key texts are conventions: the Geneva Conventions, the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States sign, ratify and accede to conventions and become 'parties' to them.
Examples
The convention has been ratified by more than 180 states.
Both countries are parties to the convention on migratory birds.
The new convention sets common rules for cross-border data sharing.
Usage note
'Convention' also means an accepted custom or a large meeting; in IR texts it usually means a treaty.
Common phrases
sign a convention · ratify a convention · party to the convention · Geneva Conventions · under the convention
A state or person that has signed an agreement; in treaty law, a state that has signed a treaty but may not yet have ratified it.
Where you use it
Common in 'signatory states' and 'signatories to the treaty'. Before deciding whether to ratify, a signatory should not act against the object and purpose of the treaty. After ratification the state is called a 'party' or 'state party'.
Examples
There are 45 signatories to the agreement, but only 20 parties.
Signatory states are invited to attend the meetings as observers.
The treaty was opened for signature, and 60 states became signatories on the first day.
Common phrases
signatory states · signatory to the treaty · original signatories · become a signatory
A written document in which two or more parties record what they have agreed to do together; between states it is usually not legally binding.
Where you use it
Shortened to MoU or MOU. Ministries and agencies sign MoUs on cooperation in areas such as education, energy or culture. Whether an MoU is binding depends on its wording and the parties' intention, not only on its title.
Examples
The two ministries signed a memorandum of understanding on student exchanges.
The memorandum of understanding sets out a plan for joint research but creates no legal obligations.
Officials hope the memorandum of understanding will lead to a full agreement next year.
Common phrases
sign a memorandum of understanding · MoU on cooperation · non-binding memorandum · framework memorandum
The moment when a treaty or law starts to have legal effect, often after a set number of states have ratified it or on a specified date.
Where you use it
Treaties contain a clause on entry into force. The verb phrase is 'enter into force'; British domestic law also says 'come into force'. Between signature and entry into force, signatories should not defeat the object and purpose of the treaty.
Examples
The date of entry into force has been set for 1 January.
Entry into force requires ratification by 50 states.
Since its entry into force in 2005, the convention has been amended twice.
Common phrases
enter into force · upon entry into force · date of entry into force · come into force
The act of a state becoming a party to a treaty that it did not sign earlier, or joining an international organisation such as the EU or NATO.
Where you use it
In treaty law, accession has the same effect as signature plus ratification. In the EU context, 'accession negotiations' and 'accession treaty' describe the path to membership. The verb is 'accede to'. In history it also means a monarch coming to the throne.
Examples
The country deposited its instrument of accession with the UN last month.
Accession negotiations are divided into chapters covering different policy areas.
Accession to the convention is open to all UN member states.
Common phrases
accession negotiations · accession treaty · instrument of accession · accede to a treaty · accession process
A formal statement made by a state when joining a treaty, saying that it will not apply certain provisions, or will apply them in a limited way.
Where you use it
States 'enter', 'make', 'withdraw' or 'object to' reservations. A reservation may not be incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty. 'Interpretative declarations' are similar but only explain how a state understands a provision.
Examples
The government ratified the convention with a reservation on article 12.
Several states objected to the reservation.
The country withdrew its reservation after changing its domestic law.
Usage note
In everyday English a 'reservation' is a booking or a doubt ('I have reservations about the plan'). In treaty law it is a formal legal statement.
Common phrases
enter a reservation · withdraw a reservation · object to a reservation · reservations and declarations
The act of a state formally leaving a treaty or international organisation; also the pulling back of troops or officials from a place.
Where you use it
Many treaties include a withdrawal clause that sets a notice period. A state 'gives notice of withdrawal' or 'announces its withdrawal', and the verb is 'withdraw from'. In security news, 'troop withdrawal' means moving forces out of an area.
Examples
The government gave six months' notice of its withdrawal from the agreement.
Under the treaty, withdrawal takes effect one year after notification.
The ceasefire plan includes a phased withdrawal of troops.
Common phrases
withdrawal from a treaty · notice of withdrawal · troop withdrawal · phased withdrawal · withdrawal clause
Creating a legal obligation that the parties must follow, so that a binding agreement or decision cannot simply be ignored.
Where you use it
Very frequent: 'legally binding', 'non-binding', 'binding on all members'. Diplomats choose carefully between a binding treaty and a non-binding declaration or MoU. Political commitments that are not legally binding are sometimes called 'soft law'.
Examples
The declaration is not legally binding, but it carries political weight.
Decisions of the Security Council under Chapter VII are binding on all member states.
Some delegations wanted binding targets, others only voluntary ones.
The global organisation set up in 1945 to keep international peace and security, build friendly relations between nations and encourage cooperation; almost every state is a member.
Where you use it
Usually shortened to 'the UN', always with 'the'. It has 193 member states, and its main organs include the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Secretariat and the International Court of Justice. Its founding document is the UN Charter.
Examples
The United Nations has called on both parties to return to the negotiating table.
She worked for a United Nations agency in Geneva for six years.
Every member of the United Nations has one vote in the General Assembly.
Usage note
Say 'the UN', not 'UN' alone: 'She works at the UN.'
Common phrases
UN Charter · UN agency · UN member states · UN-backed · UN special envoy
The UN organ with primary responsibility for international peace and security. It has 15 members and can take decisions, such as sanctions, that all UN member states must carry out.
Where you use it
Five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States), often called the P5, hold a veto; ten non-permanent members are elected for two-year terms. News uses 'the Council' for short and 'UNSC' in headlines.
Examples
The Security Council will hold an emergency meeting tonight.
The draft failed after a permanent member of the Security Council used its veto.
The country was elected to a non-permanent seat on the Security Council.
Common phrases
UN Security Council · Security Council resolution · permanent member · non-permanent seat · emergency meeting
A body set up by agreement between states, with its own members, rules and permanent staff, to deal with shared problems such as security, trade, health or development.
Where you use it
In IR writing it usually means an intergovernmental organisation (IGO) whose members are states, such as the UN, the WTO or NATO; groups set up by private citizens are NGOs. People 'join', 'set up' or 'work for' an international organisation.
Examples
After graduating, she wants to work for an international organisation in Geneva or Vienna.
Small states often rely on international organisations to make their voices heard.
The international organisation has 40 member states and a secretariat of 300 staff.
Usage note
British spelling is 'organisation', American spelling is 'organization'. Official names keep their own spelling: World Health Organization.
Common phrases
join an international organisation · intergovernmental organisation · regional organisation · work for an international organisation
The main body of the United Nations in which all 193 member states are represented, each with one vote; it discusses global issues and adopts resolutions and the UN budget.
Where you use it
Its annual session opens each September in New York with the 'general debate', when leaders address the hall. Its resolutions are generally recommendations rather than binding decisions, although its budget decisions bind members. Shortened to UNGA.
Examples
The General Assembly adopted the resolution with 150 votes in favour and 12 abstentions.
The president will address the General Assembly next Tuesday.
General Assembly resolutions carry political weight even when they are not binding.
Common phrases
UN General Assembly · address the General Assembly · General Assembly resolution · general debate · General Assembly session
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance of North American and European states founded in 1949, whose members commit to defending each other.
Where you use it
Pronounced as one word and used without 'the'. Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty says that an armed attack on one member is considered an attack on all. Its headquarters are in Brussels, and it takes decisions by consensus.
Examples
NATO foreign ministers will meet in Brussels next week.
The country joined NATO after all members had ratified its accession protocol.
NATO takes its decisions by consensus, so every ally has a voice.
Usage note
The French name is OTAN, which you will see in bilingual documents.
Common phrases
NATO member · NATO allies · NATO summit · join NATO · NATO headquarters
A political and economic union of European states that share common institutions, a single market and many common policies; its members pool part of their sovereignty.
Where you use it
Shortened to 'the EU'. Key institutions are the European Commission, the Council of the EU, the European Parliament and the European Council of leaders. Countries apply for membership, become candidates and hold accession negotiations.
Examples
The European Union has signed trade agreements with dozens of countries.
Each member of the European Union sends a minister to Council meetings.
The country applied to join the European Union and became a candidate two years later.
Usage note
The European Council (the meeting of EU leaders) and the Council of Europe (a separate human rights organisation based in Strasbourg) are different bodies.
Common phrases
EU member states · join the EU · EU institutions · EU candidate country · EU law
A country that belongs to an international organisation such as the UN or the EU, with the rights and duties that membership brings.
Where you use it
Standard in official texts: 'all member states', 'EU member states', 'the 193 member states of the UN'. In NATO the members are normally called 'allies'. 'Non-member state' and 'observer state' describe other kinds of status.
Examples
All member states must pay their contributions by the end of January.
Several member states asked for more time to study the proposal.
The rules apply equally to every member state.
Common phrases
EU member states · UN member states · all member states · non-member state · member state contributions
A formal decision or statement adopted by vote or consensus in a body such as the UN Security Council or General Assembly, expressing a position or requiring action.
Where you use it
Resolutions are drafted, tabled, co-sponsored, adopted or rejected, and they are numbered ('Resolution 1325'). A text before the vote is a 'draft resolution'. The wording moves from mild to strong: 'encourages', 'calls upon', 'demands', 'decides'.
Examples
The council adopted the resolution unanimously.
Ten countries co-sponsored the draft resolution on water security.
The resolution calls upon all parties to allow humanitarian access.
Usage note
In everyday English 'resolution' also means a solution or a firm decision; in UN texts it always means a formal decision.
Common phrases
adopt a resolution · draft resolution · pass a resolution · UN resolution · co-sponsor a resolution
The power of one member to block a decision even when the others support it; at the UN, the right of the five permanent Security Council members to stop a draft resolution.
Where you use it
Noun and verb: a country 'uses its veto', 'casts a veto' or 'vetoes' a draft. In the Security Council a negative vote by a permanent member is a veto, but an abstention is not. The plural is 'vetoes'. Bodies that decide by unanimity also give members 'veto power'.
Examples
The draft was vetoed by one of the permanent members.
Any member can veto the decision because the rules require unanimity.
Some states want to limit the use of the veto in cases of mass atrocities.
Common phrases
use a veto · cast a veto · veto power · veto a resolution · threaten a veto
Short for non-governmental organisation: a non-profit group that is independent of governments and works on issues such as human rights, aid, development or the environment.
Where you use it
Pronounced letter by letter. NGOs lobby governments, deliver aid, monitor human rights and take part in UN meetings; some hold 'consultative status' with the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The plural is NGOs.
Examples
Several NGOs sent observers to monitor the election.
She works for an international NGO that runs schools in refugee camps.
The ministry meets NGO representatives before every human rights review.
Common phrases
international NGO · humanitarian NGO · NGO representatives · local NGOs · NGO sector
The head of the United Nations Secretariat and the UN's chief administrative officer; the title is also used for the heads of other organisations, such as NATO.
Where you use it
The UN Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council, usually for a five-year term. The role combines administration with quiet diplomacy, 'good offices' and public statements. The plural is 'Secretaries-General'.
Examples
The Secretary-General called on all parties to show restraint.
The Secretary-General's report will be presented to the Security Council next week.
The alliance's Secretary-General chairs the main meetings of its member states.
Common phrases
UN Secretary-General · Deputy Secretary-General · Secretary-General's report · spokesperson for the Secretary-General
The body of rules that governs relations between states and other international actors, based mainly on treaties, custom and general principles of law.
Where you use it
Used in diplomatic statements ('in line with international law'), legal opinions and academic writing. Article 38 of the ICJ Statute lists its sources. 'Public international law' covers relations between states; 'private international law' deals with cross-border private disputes.
Examples
The ministry said the decision was fully in line with international law.
Under international law, diplomats cannot be arrested by the host country.
She is writing her PhD on international law and the protection of migrants.
Common phrases
under international law · breach of international law · in line with international law · public international law · rules of international law
The basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person, such as the right to life, freedom of expression and a fair trial, which states are expected to respect and protect.
Where you use it
Almost always plural. Key texts include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and later UN covenants. Rights are respected, protected, promoted, violated or abused, and organisations monitor and report on a country's 'human rights record'.
Examples
The committee reviews the human rights record of every member state.
The agreement includes a clause on respect for human rights.
She works for an NGO that documents human rights violations.
Common phrases
human rights violations · human rights record · protect human rights · human rights law · human rights defender
The principle that a state's borders and territory must not be violated or changed by force or pressure from other states.
Where you use it
Protected by Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, which prohibits the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity of any state. Often paired with sovereignty: 'respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states'.
Examples
The declaration reaffirms respect for the territorial integrity of all states in the region.
The tension between territorial integrity and self-determination is a classic debate in international law.
Both governments pledged to respect each other's territorial integrity.
Common phrases
respect territorial integrity · violation of territorial integrity · sovereignty and territorial integrity · territorial integrity of states
The main judicial organ of the United Nations, based in The Hague, which settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions on questions of international law.
Where you use it
Shortened to ICJ and sometimes called the World Court. It has 15 judges elected for nine-year terms, and only states can be parties to its contentious cases. Do not confuse it with the International Criminal Court (ICC), which tries individuals.
Examples
The two states agreed to take their border dispute to the International Court of Justice.
The General Assembly asked the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion.
Judgments of the International Court of Justice are binding on the parties to the case.
Usage note
The ICJ (disputes between states) and the ICC (trials of individuals for crimes) are different courts, though both are in The Hague.
Common phrases
ICJ ruling · advisory opinion · bring a case before the ICJ · ICJ judgment · World Court
Rules of international law that come from the general and consistent practice of states, followed because states believe they are legally required to follow them.
Where you use it
It has two elements: state practice and 'opinio juris', the belief that the practice is legally required. It binds states even without a treaty. Lawyers and diplomats argue about whether a rule 'has become' or 'reflects' customary international law.
Examples
Many rules on diplomatic immunity were part of customary international law long before 1961.
The court found that the rule reflects customary international law.
Even states that have not ratified the treaty are bound by customary international law.
Common phrases
rule of customary international law · state practice · opinio juris · reflect customary international law
The right of a people to choose its own political future and form of government, and to shape its own economic, social and cultural development.
Where you use it
Stated in the UN Charter and in the two 1966 human rights covenants, and central to decolonisation. Scholars distinguish 'internal' self-determination (participation within a state) from 'external' self-determination, and its relationship with territorial integrity is much debated.
Examples
The right to self-determination played a key role in decolonisation after 1945.
The seminar compares different legal views on self-determination.
Internal self-determination can be achieved through autonomy or fair political participation.
Common phrases
right to self-determination · right of peoples to self-determination · internal self-determination · external self-determination
The formal acceptance by one state that another entity is a state, or that a government is the legitimate government of a state.
Where you use it
States 'grant', 'extend' or 'withhold' recognition, and the verb is 'recognise' (US 'recognize'). Lawyers debate whether recognition creates a state (the constitutive theory) or only confirms that it exists (the declaratory theory). Recognition is often followed by diplomatic relations.
Examples
The new state received recognition from more than 100 countries within a year.
Recognition of a government is different from recognition of a state.
The ministry said that recognition would follow once certain conditions were met.
Common phrases
diplomatic recognition · grant recognition · withhold recognition · recognition of a state · international recognition
A person who is outside their own country and cannot return because of a well-founded fear of persecution; in wider use, also someone who has fled war or violence.
Where you use it
The legal definition comes from the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. A core principle is 'non-refoulement': refugees must not be sent back to a place where they face serious danger. The UN agency is UNHCR. Refugees differ from migrants and internally displaced persons (IDPs).
Examples
The camp now hosts more than 20,000 refugees.
She was granted refugee status after a two-year process.
The conference discussed how to share responsibility for refugees more fairly.
Usage note
Turkish law uses several categories (mülteci, şartlı mülteci, ikincil koruma, geçici koruma), so 'refugee' in English news does not always match one Turkish legal status exactly.
Protection given by a state to a person who has fled their own country because of danger or persecution.
Where you use it
People 'seek', 'apply for' or 'claim' asylum, or are 'granted' it; while their case is being decided they are 'asylum seekers'. If the claim is accepted, they usually receive refugee status. 'Diplomatic asylum' in an embassy is a separate and debated practice.
Examples
He applied for asylum as soon as he arrived at the airport.
Asylum seekers wait an average of eight months for a decision.
The court ruled that she should be granted asylum.
Usage note
An 'asylum seeker' is still waiting for a decision; a 'refugee' has usually been recognised as needing international protection. In older English, 'asylum' could also mean a psychiatric hospital.
Common phrases
seek asylum · apply for asylum · grant asylum · asylum seeker · asylum application
The principle that states must not interfere in the internal affairs of other states, for example by using force or pressure to influence their political system.
Where you use it
A basic rule of international law linked to sovereignty; Article 2(7) of the UN Charter also limits UN intervention in matters within a state's domestic jurisdiction. Statements often say 'non-interference in internal affairs'. Debates on humanitarian intervention test its limits.
Examples
The declaration reaffirms the principle of non-intervention in internal affairs.
Students debated how far the principle of non-intervention applies in cases of mass atrocities.
Non-intervention is one of the oldest principles of the state system.
Common phrases
principle of non-intervention · non-interference in internal affairs · duty of non-intervention · humanitarian intervention
A serious disagreement or struggle between states or groups, ranging from a political dispute to armed violence; in IR it often means armed conflict.
Where you use it
Common in news, reports and humanitarian work: conflicts break out, escalate and end, and may be resolved or 'frozen'. Key phrases: armed conflict, conflict zone, conflict prevention, conflict resolution, post-conflict reconstruction.
Examples
Thousands of families fled the conflict and crossed the border.
The report looks at conflict prevention in border regions.
Aid workers have limited access to the conflict zone.
Usage note
The stress changes: CONflict (noun) but conFLICT (verb). The verb usually means 'to contradict': 'The two reports conflict.'
An agreement between the sides in an armed conflict to stop fighting, either for a limited time or as a first step towards a lasting peace.
Where you use it
A ceasefire is called for, agreed, brokered, declared, observed, extended and violated. It is narrower than a peace agreement and does not settle the underlying dispute. American English also writes 'cease-fire'; 'truce' is a near synonym.
Examples
The mediators brokered a ceasefire that came into effect at midnight.
Both sides accused each other of violating the ceasefire.
Observers will monitor the ceasefire along the line of contact.
Common phrases
agree a ceasefire · broker a ceasefire · violate the ceasefire · ceasefire line · fragile ceasefire
A formal agreement between two or more states to support each other, especially militarily, and the group of states that make such an agreement.
Where you use it
States form, join, enter into and leave alliances, and members are 'allies'. Typical phrases: military alliance, defensive alliance, alliance partners. NATO documents often call NATO simply 'the Alliance'.
Examples
The two states formed a defensive alliance after the war.
Joining the alliance requires the agreement of all existing members.
Alliance members meet every year to review their defence spending.
Common phrases
form an alliance · military alliance · join an alliance · alliance partners · strategic alliance
An arrangement in which states agree that an attack or threat against one of them concerns all of them and will be answered jointly.
Where you use it
A core idea behind the League of Nations and the UN Charter, under which the Security Council acts on behalf of all members. Scholars distinguish it from 'collective defence', as in NATO, which protects members against outside threats.
Examples
The UN Charter is built on the idea of collective security.
The League of Nations' system of collective security failed in the 1930s.
Students often confuse collective security with collective defence.
Common phrases
system of collective security · collective security arrangement · collective defence · regional collective security
The strategy of preventing an attack by making a possible attacker believe that the costs, such as a strong response, would be greater than any gain.
Where you use it
Central in security studies and defence policy: 'nuclear deterrence', 'credible deterrence', 'deterrence by denial' (showing an attack would fail) and 'deterrence by punishment' (threatening retaliation). The verb is 'deter', and 'a deterrent' is something that deters.
Examples
In theory, deterrence works only if the threat of a response is credible.
The alliance says its strategy rests on deterrence and defence.
The course covers nuclear deterrence during and after the Cold War.
Usage note
Note the double 'r' in 'deterrence' and 'deterrent', but a single 'r' in 'deter'.
Common phrases
nuclear deterrence · credible deterrence · deterrence by denial · deterrence by punishment · deterrence strategy
The use of international military, police and civilian personnel, usually under the UN and with the consent of the parties, to help maintain a ceasefire and support peace after a conflict.
Where you use it
Common phrases: peacekeeping mission, peacekeeping operation, peacekeeping forces. UN peacekeepers are known as 'blue helmets'. The basic principles are consent of the parties, impartiality and limited use of force.
Examples
The Security Council extended the peacekeeping mission for another year.
Peacekeeping troops patrol the buffer zone between the two sides.
Several countries contribute police officers to UN peacekeeping.
Usage note
'Peacekeeping' keeps an existing peace; 'peacebuilding' is the longer work of rebuilding institutions; 'peace enforcement' may use force without full consent.
Common phrases
peacekeeping mission · peacekeeping operation · peacekeeping forces · UN peacekeeping · contribute to peacekeeping
Agreements and measures between states that limit the number, types, testing or use of weapons, especially nuclear weapons, in order to reduce the risk of war.
Where you use it
Arms control talks lead to treaties with limits, inspections and verification. It is different from 'disarmament', which aims to remove weapons completely. Common phrases: arms control agreement, arms control regime, verification measures.
Examples
The two states began arms control talks on long-range missiles.
Verification is often the most difficult part of an arms control agreement.
The course covers the history of arms control since the 1960s.
Common phrases
arms control talks · arms control agreement · arms control regime · verification measures
Efforts to stop the spread of weapons, especially nuclear weapons, and the technology to make them, to states or groups that do not already have them.
Where you use it
The key treaty is the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), opened for signature in 1968 and in force since 1970. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) checks compliance through 'safeguards' and inspections.
Examples
Non-proliferation is one of the three pillars of the NPT, together with disarmament and peaceful use.
The conference reviewed progress on nuclear non-proliferation.
Export controls are an important tool of non-proliferation policy.
An increase in the intensity, size or danger of a conflict or crisis, for example when one side's action leads the other to respond more strongly.
Where you use it
Common in security analysis and news: 'risk of escalation', 'further escalation', 'escalation spiral'. The verb is 'escalate'. Diplomats call for 'de-escalation' and 'restraint' to reduce tension.
Examples
Both sides said they wanted to avoid any further escalation.
Analysts warn of the risk of escalation along the border.
The hotline was set up to prevent accidental escalation.
Common phrases
risk of escalation · further escalation · avoid escalation · de-escalation · escalation spiral
Practical steps that states take to reduce mistrust and the risk of misunderstanding, such as sharing information, giving notice of military exercises or setting up hotlines.
Where you use it
Shortened to CBMs. Used in security talks, arms control and peace processes, for example after a ceasefire. Some cover non-military areas such as trade, culture or people-to-people contacts. The OSCE term is 'confidence- and security-building measures' (CSBMs).
Examples
The two sides agreed on a package of confidence-building measures, including a military hotline.
Confidence-building measures can prepare the ground for formal negotiations.
Advance notice of large military exercises is a common example of confidence-building measures.
Common phrases
agree on confidence-building measures · package of confidence-building measures · military confidence-building measures · CBMs
Penalties, such as trade restrictions or frozen assets, that one or more countries or international organisations impose on a state, group or person to change their behaviour.
Where you use it
Almost always plural in this meaning. Sanctions are imposed, tightened, eased, lifted and evaded, and a country can be 'under sanctions'. Types include economic, financial, trade and targeted sanctions. The UN Security Council and the EU both adopt sanctions regimes.
Examples
The bloc agreed to impose new sanctions on the companies named in the report.
Sanctions will be lifted only if the government meets all the conditions.
Banks must check that their clients are not under sanctions.
Usage note
As a verb, 'to sanction' can mean both 'to punish' and 'to officially approve', so check the context.
An official ban on trade, or on a particular kind of trade such as arms or oil, with a specific country, imposed by a state or international organisation.
Where you use it
An embargo is imposed, enforced, broken or lifted. The 'arms embargo' is the most common type in UN practice. It is narrower than 'sanctions', which can also include financial and travel measures. In journalism a 'press embargo' means news cannot be published before a set time.
Examples
The council imposed an arms embargo on all parties to the conflict.
The trade embargo was lifted after the agreement was signed.
Customs officers seized a shipment that broke the embargo.
Usage note
The plural is 'embargoes'. The stress is on the second syllable: em-BAR-go.
Common phrases
arms embargo · trade embargo · impose an embargo · lift an embargo · oil embargo
A measure that stops a person, company or government from using or moving the money and property they hold abroad or in a country's banks.
Where you use it
One of the most common forms of targeted sanctions. Banks must 'freeze' the assets of listed people and report them, and assets are 'unfrozen' when sanctions end. It is usually combined with a travel ban. Note the verb forms: freeze, froze, frozen.
Examples
The new measures include an asset freeze on twelve officials.
Under the asset freeze, no one may make funds available to the listed companies.
The court ordered the asset freeze to be lifted.
Common phrases
impose an asset freeze · lift an asset freeze · subject to an asset freeze · frozen assets · asset freeze and travel ban
Sanctions aimed at specific people, companies or sectors, such as officials or banks, instead of a whole country's economy, in order to limit harm to ordinary citizens.
Where you use it
Also called 'smart sanctions'. They developed from the 1990s, when broad embargoes were criticised for their humanitarian impact. Usual tools are asset freezes, travel bans, arms embargoes and sectoral restrictions, and targets are placed on a 'sanctions list'.
Examples
The council chose targeted sanctions against officials rather than a full trade ban.
Targeted sanctions are meant to reduce the impact on ordinary people.
Three more companies were added to the list of targeted sanctions.
An official measure that prevents certain people from entering or passing through a country, often used as a sanction against named officials.
Where you use it
In sanctions language it is usually paired with an asset freeze: 'subject to a travel ban and asset freeze'. More broadly it can mean a ban on travel from certain countries, for example for health reasons. Exemptions are often made for UN meetings.
Examples
Five officials have been placed under a travel ban.
The travel ban does not apply to journeys for humanitarian purposes.
He received an exemption from the travel ban to attend the conference.
Common phrases
impose a travel ban · subject to a travel ban · lift a travel ban · travel ban exemption
Money, goods, loans or expertise given by one country or organisation to another, usually to support development, respond to disasters or strengthen relations.
Where you use it
Also called 'development aid' or 'development assistance'; the OECD term is 'official development assistance' (ODA). Aid can be bilateral or multilateral, and 'tied aid' must be spent on goods and services from the donor country. The main parties are donors and recipients.
Examples
The government plans to increase foreign aid to 0.5% of national income.
Most of the country's foreign aid goes to health and education projects.
Critics say foreign aid is sometimes used to win political support.
Common phrases
foreign aid budget · development aid · humanitarian aid · tied aid · aid donor
Sanctions that punish companies or banks in third countries for doing business with a state or person that is already under sanctions.
Where you use it
Used mainly in legal, banking and compliance work. They extend the reach of sanctions beyond the imposing country's own companies. They are controversial because third countries may see them as extraterritorial, and some have adopted 'blocking' laws in response.
Examples
The bank stopped the payments because it feared secondary sanctions.
Secondary sanctions can affect companies that have no link to the imposing country.
Our compliance team checks every contract for the risk of secondary sanctions.
Common phrases
risk of secondary sanctions · threaten secondary sanctions · exposure to secondary sanctions · extraterritorial sanctions
Government rules that limit, or require licences for, the export of sensitive goods, software and technology, especially items that could have military uses.
Where you use it
Especially important for 'dual-use' items, which have both civilian and military uses, such as certain chemicals or chips. Exporters apply for an 'export licence'. Several international regimes coordinate national export control lists.
Examples
New export controls require a licence for some advanced chips.
The company must check whether the equipment falls under export controls.
Export controls on dual-use goods are coordinated among the member states.
Common phrases
export controls on · tighten export controls · export licence · dual-use goods · export control regime
The use of diplomatic tools and networks to support a country's economic interests, such as trade, investment, energy deals and access to foreign markets.
Where you use it
Embassies have commercial attachés and trade offices for this work, and leaders often take business delegations on official visits. Related terms are 'commercial diplomacy', 'trade diplomacy' and 'economic statecraft', which also covers sanctions and aid.
Examples
Economic diplomacy has become a priority for the foreign ministry.
The minister's visit was a good example of economic diplomacy: twenty business leaders came too.
Embassies now train their staff in economic diplomacy.
The relations between countries and other actors in world politics, and the academic subject that studies them, including diplomacy, war, trade and international organisations.
Where you use it
As a subject it is often shortened to IR and written with capitals in course names: 'a degree in International Relations'. Scholars call themselves IR scholars or IR theorists. As the name of a subject it takes a singular verb.
Examples
She has a master's degree in international relations and now works at the foreign ministry.
Climate change has become a central issue in international relations.
Most international relations courses start with realism and liberalism.
Common phrases
study international relations · IR theory · a degree in International Relations · international relations scholar
A situation in which power is spread among states so that no single state or group can dominate the others; also the idea that states act to create such a balance.
Where you use it
A classic concept of realism and European diplomatic history. States may 'balance' against a rising power by building up their own strength or forming alliances, or 'bandwagon' by joining the stronger side. News writers use 'a shift in the balance of power'.
Examples
The rise of new economies is changing the balance of power in the region.
Nineteenth-century Europe is often described as a balance of power system.
Realists expect states to form alliances to restore the balance of power.
Common phrases
shift in the balance of power · maintain the balance of power · regional balance of power · balance of power politics
A major theory of international relations holding that states are the main actors, that they pursue power and security in an anarchic system, and that conflict is always possible.
Where you use it
Its followers are 'realists'. Classical realism stresses human nature and power, while neorealism, or structural realism, stresses the anarchic structure of the system. Students usually contrast realism with liberalism and constructivism.
Examples
Realism explains why states worry more about relative gains than absolute gains.
The essay asks whether realism can explain cooperation in the EU.
Structural realism focuses on the distribution of power among states.
Usage note
In IR, 'realism' is the name of a theory, not just 'being realistic'. A 'realist' is someone who follows that theory.
A major theory of international relations holding that cooperation between states is possible and is helped by trade, international institutions, law and democracy.
Where you use it
Branches include liberal institutionalism (neoliberalism), which stresses institutions, and democratic peace theory, which observes that democracies rarely fight each other. Its followers are 'liberals', and it is usually taught as the main alternative to realism.
Examples
Liberalism argues that international institutions help states trust each other.
In the exam, compare realism and liberalism on the question of cooperation.
Economic interdependence is a central theme in liberalism.
Usage note
In IR, 'liberalism' is a theory about cooperation, not a party label. In US politics 'liberal' usually means left of centre; IR theory does not use it in that sense.
Common phrases
liberal institutionalism · democratic peace theory · liberal international order · liberalism and realism
A theory of international relations holding that ideas, identities and shared norms, not only material power, shape how states see their interests and how they behave.
Where you use it
Became influential in the 1990s. Constructivists study norms, identity, culture and discourse, and argue that international politics is 'socially constructed'. A well-known 1992 article by Alexander Wendt argued that anarchy is what states make of it.
Examples
Constructivism helps explain why some norms spread quickly between states.
From a constructivist point of view, national identity shapes foreign policy.
Her thesis applies constructivism to regional security cooperation.
Common phrases
social constructivism · constructivist approach · constructivist scholars · norms and identity
In IR theory, the absence of a world government above states, so that each state must rely on itself for its security; it does not necessarily mean chaos.
Where you use it
A starting point of realist and liberal theories. Writers speak of 'international anarchy', 'an anarchic system' and 'self-help under anarchy'. Theories disagree about what anarchy leads to: competition, cooperation, or whatever states make of it.
Examples
Under anarchy, there is no world police force to protect states from each other.
Realists see anarchy as the main cause of competition among states.
The lecture explained how anarchy in IR differs from disorder.
Usage note
In everyday English 'anarchy' means chaos; in IR it is a technical term for 'no central authority'.
Common phrases
international anarchy · anarchic system · self-help under anarchy · condition of anarchy
A state with enough military, economic and political strength to influence events far beyond its own region and to shape the international system.
Where you use it
Used in history and IR theory: 'great power politics', 'great power rivalry', 'the great powers of nineteenth-century Europe'. A 'superpower' is a step higher, while a 'middle power' and a 'regional power' are lower.
Examples
The Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815 brought together the great powers of Europe.
Small states try to avoid being caught in great power rivalry.
The book compares how great powers rise and decline.
Common phrases
great power rivalry · great power politics · rising great power · great power status
Leadership or dominance by one state over others, based on military, economic and often cultural power, which allows it to set many of the rules of the system.
Where you use it
The dominant state is a 'hegemon', and the adjective is 'hegemonic'. 'Hegemonic stability theory' argues that an open world economy needs a leading power. In critical theory, influenced by Gramsci, hegemony also means dominance through consent and ideas.
Examples
Historians often describe the nineteenth century as a period of British naval hegemony.
The article asks whether regional hegemony is possible without military power.
Hegemonic stability theory links open trade to a single leading power.
Usage note
Several pronunciations are accepted, for example /hɪˈdʒeməni/ and /hɪˈɡeməni/; many Americans also say /ˈhedʒəmoʊni/.
Common phrases
regional hegemony · hegemonic power · hegemonic stability theory · challenge hegemony
A situation in which one state's efforts to make itself safer, such as buying weapons, make other states feel less safe, so they respond and overall insecurity rises.
Where you use it
A key concept in security studies, first described by John Herz in 1950. It is used to explain arms races and spirals of mistrust even between states with no aggressive intentions. Confidence-building measures are designed to ease it.
Examples
The security dilemma explains how two defensive states can end up in an arms race.
Each side saw the other's new missiles as a threat, a classic security dilemma.
Regular military contacts can reduce the security dilemma between neighbours.
Common phrases
classic security dilemma · ease the security dilemma · spiral model · security dilemma dynamics
A situation in which states depend on each other, for example through trade, investment, energy or technology, so that events in one country affect others.
Where you use it
Central to liberal IR theory; 'complex interdependence' is a well-known concept from the 1970s. Common phrases: economic interdependence, global interdependence and 'weaponised interdependence', when economic ties are used as a means of pressure.
Examples
Liberals argue that economic interdependence makes war very costly for both sides.
The pandemic showed how deep global interdependence has become.
Energy interdependence links the two economies closely.
A participant in international affairs that is not a state, such as an NGO, a multinational company, an armed group or a transnational network.
Where you use it
Very common in security studies, global governance and human rights writing. Realism focuses on states, while liberal and constructivist scholars pay more attention to non-state actors. Legal texts use phrases such as 'armed non-state actors'.
Examples
Non-state actors such as large technology companies now help shape international rules.
The conference invited NGOs and other non-state actors to speak.
The treaty does not clearly cover attacks by non-state actors.
Common phrases
non-state actors · armed non-state actors · state and non-state actors · role of non-state actors
Formal discussion between parties who are trying to reach an agreement, in which each side presents its position, makes proposals and may accept compromises.
Where you use it
Often plural: 'negotiations are under way'. Negotiations open, stall, break down, resume and conclude. The verb is 'negotiate', and the parties sit at 'the negotiating table'. Negotiators count 'rounds' of negotiation.
Examples
After three rounds of negotiation, the delegations agreed on most of the text.
Negotiations broke down over the question of border controls.
Both sides said they were ready to resume negotiations in the spring.
Usage note
'Negotiations' sounds more formal than 'talks'. The 'ti' in the middle is pronounced /ʃi/ or /si/.
Common phrases
enter into negotiations · round of negotiations · negotiations broke down · resume negotiations · under negotiation
A high-level meeting between heads of state or government, often lasting a day or two, to discuss major issues and agree on joint decisions or statements.
Where you use it
Summits are hosted, attended and held, and officials prepare them for months. The end product is often a 'summit declaration' or communiqué. 'Summitry' means diplomacy conducted through summits; meetings of ministers are 'ministerial meetings'.
Examples
The two leaders will meet at a summit in the capital next month.
The summit ended with a joint declaration on energy security.
Officials are still negotiating the wording of the summit statement.
Usage note
'On the sidelines of the summit' means in separate, smaller meetings held during the summit.
Common phrases
host a summit · attend a summit · summit declaration · on the sidelines of the summit · summit meeting
A group of people chosen to represent a country or organisation at a meeting, conference or negotiation, usually led by a head of delegation.
Where you use it
Delegations are sent, led and received, and their members are 'delegates'. In UN meetings speakers say 'my delegation' to mean their country: 'My delegation supports the draft.' In management, 'delegation' also means giving tasks to others, a different meaning.
Examples
A ten-member delegation will travel to the capital for the trade talks.
The head of delegation thanked the hosts for their hospitality.
My delegation would like to propose a small change to paragraph four.
Common phrases
head of delegation · lead a delegation · send a delegation · trade delegation · high-level delegation
The list of issues to be discussed at a meeting; more broadly, the set of goals or priorities that a government or organisation wants to pursue.
Where you use it
Items are put on, added to or taken off the agenda, and a formal meeting 'adopts the agenda' at the start. 'Top of the agenda' means most important, and a 'hidden agenda' is a secret aim. 'Agenda-setting' is a key idea in diplomacy and media studies.
Examples
Energy security is at the top of the agenda for this year's summit.
The delegation asked to add migration to the agenda.
The meeting opened with the adoption of the agenda.
Common phrases
on the agenda · top of the agenda · adopt the agenda · agenda item · set the agenda
General agreement among all participants, often reached without a formal vote because no one objects to a proposal.
Where you use it
Many bodies decide by consensus, including NATO and most UN conferences. Delegates 'reach', 'build', 'block' or 'join' consensus. Consensus differs from unanimity: a state can accept a decision by staying silent instead of voting yes.
Examples
The final text was adopted by consensus late on Friday night.
One delegation blocked consensus, so the meeting ended without a declaration.
The chair spent two days trying to build consensus on the budget.
Usage note
It is spelled with two s's in the middle: 'consensus', not 'concensus'. Careful writers avoid 'consensus of opinion', which repeats the same idea.
An agreement in which each side gives up part of what it wanted so that both can accept the result; the same word is a verb meaning to reach such an agreement.
Where you use it
Negotiators 'look for', 'reach', 'propose' or 'accept' a compromise, and a chair or mediator often drafts a 'compromise text'. As a verb, 'compromise on' something means to meet the other side halfway.
Examples
After long talks, the ministers reached a compromise on the timetable.
The chair circulated a compromise text on Thursday morning.
Neither side was willing to compromise on the main issue.
Usage note
'Compromise' can also be negative: 'to compromise security' means to put it at risk. Turkish 'uzlaşma' has no such meaning.
Common phrases
reach a compromise · compromise text · compromise proposal · compromise on · find a compromise
An effort by a neutral third party, such as a state, organisation or individual, to help the sides in a dispute reach an agreement without imposing a solution.
Where you use it
A third party offers, accepts or leads mediation; the person is a 'mediator' and the verb is 'mediate'. Mediation is softer than arbitration, in which a third party gives a decision. 'Good offices' is an even lighter form in which the third party only helps the sides talk.
Examples
Both governments accepted mediation by a regional organisation.
The talks took place under the mediation of a neutral country.
Mediation efforts have so far failed to produce a ceasefire.
Common phrases
offer mediation · accept mediation · mediation efforts · under the mediation of · international mediation
An official statement issued at the end of a meeting or summit, summarising what the participants discussed and agreed.
Where you use it
Common after summits and ministerial meetings: 'final communiqué', 'joint communiqué'. Officials negotiate every word in advance, and journalists read communiqués closely for changes in wording. Often written without the accent: communique.
Examples
The final communiqué called for closer cooperation on cybersecurity.
Officials worked through the night to agree the text of the communiqué.
The joint communiqué was published on the ministry's website.
Usage note
The word comes from French, and the stress is on the second syllable: kuh-MYOO-ni-kay.
Common phrases
final communiqué · joint communiqué · issue a communiqué · draft communiqué · summit communiqué
A public statement issued together by two or more governments or organisations, setting out positions or commitments they share.
Where you use it
Issued after bilateral visits, phone calls or meetings, and often shorter and less formal than a communiqué. A 'joint declaration' is a more solemn version. Common phrases: 'in a joint statement, the ministers…', 'sign a joint statement'.
Examples
In a joint statement, the two ministers welcomed progress on the visa agreement.
Thirty countries have signed the joint statement on ocean protection.
The joint statement does not mention the date of the next meeting.
Common phrases
issue a joint statement · in a joint statement · sign a joint statement · joint declaration
Something that one side in a negotiation agrees to give up or accept in order to move closer to an agreement with the other side.
Where you use it
Parties 'make', 'offer', 'demand', 'win' or 'extract' concessions; 'mutual concessions' means both sides give something. Because a concession can be presented at home as weakness, officials often prefer the word 'compromise'. In business, 'concession' also means a special right or a discount.
Examples
Both sides made important concessions in the final round.
The delegation refused to make any concessions on the main issue.
In return for the concession, the other side agreed to extend the deadline.
Common phrases
make concessions · mutual concessions · win a concession · major concession · in return for concessions
Formal discussions between governments or groups, usually to solve a problem or reach an agreement; in this meaning the word is always plural.
Where you use it
The everyday news word for negotiations: peace talks, trade talks, high-level talks, exploratory talks. Talks are held, open, stall, collapse and resume, and a side can 'walk out of' them. In 'proximity talks' a mediator moves between the parties in separate rooms.
Examples
Talks between the two delegations will resume on Monday.
The peace talks collapsed after only two days.
Officials described the talks as frank and constructive.
Usage note
In this meaning 'talks' takes a plural verb: 'The talks are going well.' Diplomats often call talks 'frank' to hint that there were real disagreements.
Common phrases
peace talks · hold talks · talks broke down · resume talks · round of talks
A situation in which the parties cannot agree and no progress is possible because neither side is willing to change its position.
Where you use it
Talks 'reach', 'end in' or 'remain in' deadlock, and a mediator tries to 'break the deadlock'. The adjective is 'deadlocked'. Near synonyms are stalemate (also used for military situations), impasse and standstill.
Examples
The negotiations have been in deadlock since March.
A new proposal from the chair helped break the deadlock.
The committee remained deadlocked over the budget.
Common phrases
break the deadlock · end in deadlock · political deadlock · reach a deadlock · deadlocked talks
An important step forward in negotiations or talks, especially after a long period without progress.
Where you use it
Negotiators 'achieve', 'make' or 'hope for' a breakthrough, and journalists write about a 'major', 'diplomatic' or 'last-minute' breakthrough. Often used with 'on' or 'in': a breakthrough on trade, a breakthrough in the talks.
Examples
Negotiators made a breakthrough on the most difficult chapter late last night.
Few observers expect a breakthrough at this week's meeting.
The agreement was described as a diplomatic breakthrough.
Common phrases
make a breakthrough · major breakthrough · diplomatic breakthrough · last-minute breakthrough · breakthrough in the talks
A limit that a government says must not be crossed, often with a warning that crossing it will lead to a serious response.
Where you use it
Governments 'draw', 'set' or 'announce' red lines, and others may 'cross' them. In negotiations it also means a position that a delegation will never give up. Turkish 'kırmızı çizgi' is used in exactly the same way.
Examples
Access to the port is a red line for our delegation.
The minister warned that any change to the border would cross a red line.
Analysts say too many red lines can make compromise impossible.
Common phrases
draw a red line · cross a red line · red lines in negotiations · set out red lines
Opinions, interests or aims that two or more sides share, which can serve as a starting point for agreement.
Where you use it
Very common in negotiation and diplomatic language: 'find', 'seek', 'look for', 'establish' or 'build on' common ground. Mediators often start by identifying areas of common ground before moving to the difficult issues.
Examples
The two delegations found common ground on trade but not on visas.
The mediator asked both sides to focus on areas of common ground.
There is little common ground between the two positions at the moment.
Common phrases
find common ground · seek common ground · areas of common ground · build on common ground
Ten questions from this glossary. Pick the right meaning for each term and see your score.
How to learn international relations & diplomacy vocabulary
Read real texts every week: a UN press release, a summit communiqué, an article of a treaty or a foreign ministry statement. Underline the verbs that go with each term, such as ratify a treaty, impose sanctions, broker a ceasefire or break the deadlock.
Learn the scale of diplomatic verbs from mild to strong: notes, welcomes, expresses concern, calls on, urges, condemns, demands. In official statements the choice of verb is often the real message.
Learn terms as pairs and processes: sign, ratify and enter into force; impose and lift sanctions; bilateral and multilateral; hard and soft power; escalation and de-escalation.
Do not force one-to-one translations. A treaty is 'antlaşma', not simply 'anlaşma'; a chargé d'affaires is a 'maslahatgüzar'; and theory names such as realism or constructivism are often kept close to the English in Turkish academic writing.
Practise by summarising a news report about a summit or a UN vote in five English sentences: who met, what was on the agenda, what was agreed, what remains open and what happens next.
Frequently asked questions
How can I learn the English of diplomacy and international relations?
Learn the words inside the texts where professionals use them. Read UN press releases, summit declarations, treaty texts, foreign ministry statements and articles from IR journals, and note each new term together with its verbs and prepositions. Then reuse those phrases when you write summaries, essays or briefing notes. Regular short reading works better than memorising long lists.
What is the difference between a treaty and an agreement?
'Agreement' is the general word for any arrangement the parties accept. A treaty is a formal written agreement between states, or between states and international organisations, that is governed by international law; what matters is its legal nature, not its title, so a text called a convention, pact or protocol can also be a treaty. In Turkish IR language a treaty is usually called 'antlaşma', while 'anlaşma' is the general word. A memorandum of understanding is often not legally binding at all.
Which international relations terms should I learn first?
Start with the actors and institutions: state, sovereignty, diplomat, embassy, ambassador, foreign policy, the UN and the Security Council. Then add the words for processes: negotiation, talks, treaty, sign, ratify, sanctions and ceasefire. Finally, learn the basic vocabulary of theory, such as realism, liberalism, constructivism, anarchy and balance of power. The first terms on this page follow that order.
Why does diplomatic language sound so indirect?
Because every official statement is read as a government's position, diplomats choose words with great care and leave room for future talks. Small differences carry meaning: 'notes' is neutral, 'expresses concern' is stronger, and 'condemns' is very strong. Descriptions of meetings are coded too; talks called 'frank' or 'useful' may have involved real disagreement or limited progress. Learning these scales helps you understand what a text really says.
Should I use British or American spelling in international relations?
Both are correct, but stay consistent within one text. International organisations have their own house styles: the UN uses British spelling with '-ize' endings, so you will see 'organization' next to 'programme' and 'labour', while EU institutions generally prefer '-ise'. Official names always keep their own spelling, for example World Health Organization.
