English is the working language of psychology journals, diagnostic manuals and most international conferences, and many training programmes and clinics abroad use it every day. This glossary collects the words psychologists and psychology students actually need, from research design and statistics to assessment, therapy and social psychology, with Turkish equivalents and realistic examples from the lab, the lecture hall and the therapy room. It also points out the traps for Turkish speakers, such as experiment and experience, session and séance, or significant in statistics.
100 terms
10 topics
57 core terms
201 example sentences
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Cognition and Perception
cognition
noun
Meaning
The mental processes we use to gain and use knowledge, such as thinking, remembering, paying attention, understanding language and solving problems.
Where you use it
A core word in lectures, textbooks and research papers. It is usually uncountable, and the adjective cognitive is even more common: cognitive psychology, cognitive development, cognitive decline, cognitive tests.
Examples
The study looked at how sleep loss affects cognition in older adults.
Social cognition is about how we perceive and interpret other people.
The process by which the brain organises and interprets information from the senses, so that we can recognise objects, sounds, faces and movement.
Where you use it
Used in cognitive psychology and neuroscience (visual perception, depth perception) and, more loosely, in social psychology for how people see each other and events (self-perception, risk perception). Sensation is the raw input; perception is its interpretation.
Examples
Visual perception depends on what we expect to see as well as on the image itself.
People with this condition often have a distorted perception of their own body size.
The ability to take in, store and later recall information and experiences; the word can also mean one particular thing that is remembered.
Where you use it
Researchers talk about stages (encoding, storage, retrieval) and systems (short-term, long-term and working memory). Clinicians ask about memory problems. 'A memory' is countable when it means a recollection, as in childhood memories or traumatic memories.
Examples
Older participants performed worse on the memory task but not on the vocabulary test.
She says the memory of the accident comes back whenever she drives at night.
Common phrases
short-term memory · long-term memory · memory loss · retrieve a memory · memory task
The ability to focus mental resources on some information while ignoring the rest, for example following one conversation in a noisy room.
Where you use it
Cognitive psychologists distinguish selective, sustained and divided attention. Clinicians talk about attention problems, attention span and difficulty concentrating, especially when assessing ADHD.
Examples
Divided attention tasks show how quickly performance drops when we multitask.
His teacher reports that he struggles to keep his attention on one task for more than a few minutes.
The limited system that holds information for a few seconds and works with it while we use it, for example keeping a phone number in mind while dialling.
Where you use it
Comes from the model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974). Researchers measure working memory capacity with tasks such as digit span and n-back, and link it to reasoning, reading and attention problems.
Examples
Mental arithmetic places heavy demands on working memory.
Children with ADHD often score lower on working memory tasks.
Usage note
Short-term memory usually means simple storage; working memory adds the active processing of that information.
Common phrases
working memory capacity · working memory task · load on working memory · verbal working memory
A systematic error in thinking or judgement that makes people depart from logic or evidence in predictable ways, such as confirmation bias.
Where you use it
Used in cognitive and social psychology, behavioural economics and clinical work. Common examples are confirmation bias, hindsight bias and, in anxiety, attentional bias towards threat. In CBT, similar thinking errors are called cognitive distortions.
Examples
Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that makes us notice evidence for what we already believe.
Clinicians are not immune to cognitive bias when they make a diagnosis.
Common phrases
confirmation bias · attentional bias · be prone to cognitive bias · reduce cognitive bias
A mental framework built from past experience that organises knowledge about something and guides how new information is noticed, interpreted and remembered.
Where you use it
Used in cognitive psychology (Bartlett), developmental psychology (Piaget's assimilation and accommodation) and clinical work, where Beck's cognitive therapy and schema therapy focus on deep negative beliefs about the self and others.
Examples
A restaurant schema tells us what usually happens when we eat out.
His core schema seems to be 'I am unlovable', and it shows up in every relationship.
Usage note
The plural is schemas in most modern texts; schemata is the older, more formal plural.
A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that allows quick judgements and decisions with little effort, but can lead to systematic errors.
Where you use it
Associated with Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman's research on judgement under uncertainty. Well-known examples are the availability, representativeness and anchoring heuristics. It is also used as an adjective (heuristic value).
Examples
The availability heuristic makes plane crashes seem more common than they really are.
Heuristics usually work well, which is why we rely on them so much.
Common phrases
availability heuristic · representativeness heuristic · rely on heuristics · heuristics and biases
A set of higher mental skills, such as planning, holding back impulses, switching between tasks and updating working memory, that let us control and organise behaviour towards goals.
Where you use it
Often used in the plural (executive functions) and linked to the prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychologists assess it after brain injury and in ADHD; common tests include the Stroop task and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.
Examples
After the head injury, his executive function was impaired and he struggled to plan simple tasks.
The Stroop task is a classic measure of executive functions such as inhibition.
Common phrases
executive function deficits · executive functioning · measure executive function · impaired executive function
A short-lived reaction such as fear, joy, anger or sadness that involves a feeling, changes in the body and an urge to act in a certain way.
Where you use it
Common in every area of psychology. Researchers separate emotion (short, linked to a trigger) from mood (longer, more diffuse). In clinical talk you will hear 'express emotions', 'difficult emotions' and 'emotional regulation'.
Examples
Can you name the emotion you felt when your manager criticised you?
Basic emotions such as fear and disgust are recognised across many cultures.
Usage note
Feeling is the everyday word for the inner experience; emotion is the broader technical term. In research, affect (stressed on the first syllable) is the umbrella term.
The forces that start, direct and keep up behaviour towards a goal, such as needs, desires, rewards and personal values.
Where you use it
Used in educational, work, health and clinical psychology. Researchers often contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; clinicians see low motivation as a common feature of depression and use motivational interviewing to support change.
Examples
Students' motivation dropped sharply when the rewards were removed.
Lack of motivation is one of the first things clients with depression mention.
The body's and mind's response to demands or threats that seem to exceed a person's resources, involving physical arousal, tension and worry.
Where you use it
Used in health, work and clinical psychology. A stressor is the cause and stress is the response. Common phrases: under stress, stress levels, chronic stress, stress management. In this sense it is uncountable.
Examples
Chronic stress was linked to higher cortisol levels in the nurses we studied.
Exams, moving house and money problems are common sources of stress for students.
Common phrases
chronic stress · under stress · stress management · cope with stress · stress response
To deal with a difficult situation, feeling or problem in a way that lets you keep functioning, for example by solving the problem or managing your emotions.
Where you use it
Very common in clinical, health and stress research. The noun coping appears in coping strategies, coping skills and problem-focused versus emotion-focused coping. Clinicians often ask: 'How are you coping?'
Examples
How are you coping with the new job and the baby?
Drinking had become his main way of coping with loneliness.
We teach students practical skills for coping with exam stress.
Usage note
Use with before the object: 'cope with anxiety', not 'cope anxiety'. Without an object, cope stands alone: 'She is coping well.'
Common phrases
cope with stress · coping strategies · coping skills · struggle to cope
A general emotional state that lasts longer, is less intense and is less clearly linked to a cause than a single emotion, such as feeling low or irritable for days.
Where you use it
Common in clinical interviews and notes: low mood, elevated mood, mood swings, mood disorders. In a mental state examination, mood is what the person reports and affect is what the clinician observes.
Examples
She described her mood as low on most days for the past two months.
In the diary study, days with exercise were linked to better mood.
Usage note
'Moralim bozuk' is 'I'm feeling low' or 'I'm in a bad mood'. English moral means ahlaki, and morale is mostly used for the spirit of a group.
The processes people use to influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how strongly they experience and express them.
Where you use it
A major research area (for example James Gross's process model) and a target in therapies such as DBT. The strategies discussed most are reappraisal and suppression. Clinicians talk about difficulties with emotion regulation; 'emotional regulation' is also used.
Examples
Studies suggest that reappraisal is a more adaptive emotion regulation strategy than suppression.
Difficulties with emotion regulation are a key focus of dialectical behaviour therapy.
The drive to do something because it is interesting, enjoyable or meaningful in itself, rather than for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Where you use it
Central to self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan) and to research in education and work. It is contrasted with extrinsic motivation; studies of the undermining effect suggest that some rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation.
Examples
Children who drew for fun showed less intrinsic motivation after they were promised a prize for drawing.
Giving students real choices can support intrinsic motivation.
Common phrases
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation · undermine intrinsic motivation · self-determination theory
The ability to adapt well and recover after adversity, trauma or serious stress, drawing on personal strengths and support from others.
Where you use it
Used in developmental, health and positive psychology, and in programmes for schools and workplaces. Researchers see it as a process shaped by relationships and context, not only as a fixed trait.
Examples
Supportive relationships were the strongest predictor of resilience in the children we followed.
Most people show resilience after a single traumatic event and do not develop PTSD.
Usage note
Resilience (bouncing back) is different from resistance (direnç); do not translate one as the other.
Everything a person or animal does that can be observed, such as actions, reactions and habits, often studied as a response to the environment.
Where you use it
Used in every area of psychology. Usually uncountable (her behaviour in class), but clinicians and researchers use the plural for specific acts (risky behaviours, safety behaviours). The adjective is behavioural.
Examples
We recorded each child's behaviour during a ten-minute play session.
Avoidance is a typical safety behaviour in social anxiety.
Usage note
US spelling is behavior (behavioral), and APA-style journals use it. Do not use the plural 'behaviours' when you mean behaviour in general.
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus, after being paired many times with a stimulus that naturally causes a response, comes to cause a similar response on its own.
Where you use it
Linked to Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs. Textbooks use the terms unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response and extinction. Clinicians use it to explain how fears and phobias can be learned.
Examples
Through classical conditioning, the sound of the dentist's drill can start to trigger fear.
Pavlov's dogs are the textbook example of classical conditioning.
In learning theory, any consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to happen again, either by adding something pleasant or by removing something unpleasant.
Where you use it
Central to operant conditioning and behaviour therapy. Positive reinforcement adds a reward; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant. Teachers, parents and behaviour analysts talk about schedules of reinforcement and the reinforcers that work for a child.
Examples
Praise worked as positive reinforcement, and the child started to tidy up more often.
Avoidance is maintained by negative reinforcement, because it brings immediate relief from anxiety.
Usage note
Negative reinforcement is not punishment: it increases a behaviour by taking something unpleasant away.
Learning in which behaviour changes because of its consequences: actions followed by reinforcement become more frequent, and actions followed by punishment become less frequent.
Where you use it
Associated with B. F. Skinner and the Skinner box. Key terms include reinforcement, punishment, shaping and extinction. It underlies applied behaviour analysis, token economies and many parenting programmes.
Examples
Through operant conditioning, the rat learned to press a lever to get food.
Sticker charts for children are a simple application of operant conditioning.
Usage note
Punishment in this sense means any consequence that reduces a behaviour, not necessarily something harsh.
Anything in the environment or inside the body that can be detected and can trigger a response, such as a sound, an image, a smell or a touch.
Where you use it
Used in perception research, learning theory and experiments, where stimuli are shown on a screen for a set time. Researchers talk about visual stimuli, emotional stimuli, stimulus onset and stimulus duration.
Examples
Each stimulus appeared on the screen for 200 milliseconds.
Angry faces were used as threatening stimuli in the attention task.
Usage note
The plural is stimuli /ˈstɪmjəlaɪ/, not stimuluses.
Learning a behaviour by watching others and the consequences of their actions, then copying or avoiding that behaviour, without direct reward or practice.
Where you use it
Linked to Albert Bandura's social learning theory and the Bobo doll experiments. Related terms are modelling, imitation and vicarious reinforcement. It helps explain how children pick up aggression, fears and skills.
Examples
In the Bobo doll studies, children showed observational learning by copying an adult's aggressive behaviour.
Observational learning helps explain why children of anxious parents may also avoid feared situations.
Common phrases
social learning theory · modelling behaviour · vicarious reinforcement · learn through observation
The deep emotional bond between a child and a caregiver, and the pattern of relating to others that grows from it and can continue into adulthood.
Where you use it
Comes from attachment theory (Bowlby, Ainsworth). Researchers and clinicians talk about secure, anxious, avoidant and disorganised attachment, adult attachment styles and attachment figures.
Examples
Toddlers with secure attachment explore more freely when their caregiver is nearby.
In therapy we explored how her attachment style affects her relationships.
The stage of development between childhood and adulthood, roughly from the start of puberty to the late teens or early twenties, with major physical, cognitive and social changes.
Where you use it
Developmental psychologists divide it into early, middle and late adolescence. The young person is an adolescent (noun or adjective); in everyday speech people say teenager. Puberty refers only to the biological changes.
Examples
Peer relationships become especially important in early adolescence.
Many anxiety disorders first appear in childhood or adolescence.
Usage note
Puberty (the biological changes) and adolescence (the wider life stage) are different; Turkish 'ergenlik' can mean either.
Common phrases
early adolescence · during adolescence · adolescent development · adolescent mental health
A skill that most children reach within a typical age range, such as smiling, sitting, walking or saying first words, used to track development.
Where you use it
Used by developmental psychologists, paediatric teams and parents. Children reach, meet or miss developmental milestones; delays in several areas may lead to a developmental assessment. The normal age ranges are wide.
Examples
His parents were worried because he had not reached the developmental milestone of walking by 18 months.
Parents fill in a questionnaire about developmental milestones at each check-up.
Common phrases
reach a developmental milestone · language milestones · motor milestones · delayed milestones
The long-running debate about how much human traits and behaviour are shaped by genes and biology (nature) and how much by experience and environment (nurture).
Where you use it
Common in introductory textbooks, lectures and essays. Modern researchers stress that nature and nurture interact, for example through gene-environment interaction and epigenetics, so the question is rarely 'either/or'.
Examples
Twin studies are one way researchers try to untangle nature versus nurture.
Most psychologists now see nature versus nurture as a false choice, since the two always interact.
Usage note
Also written nature vs. nurture or nature-nurture; in speech people often say 'the nature-nurture question'.
Common phrases
the nature versus nurture debate · nature and nurture interact · gene-environment interaction
A baby's understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen, heard or touched.
Where you use it
A key idea in Jean Piaget's sensorimotor stage. Piaget placed its development in the second half of the first year and beyond; later studies using looking-time methods suggest that younger infants may understand more than he thought.
Examples
Peekaboo is fun for babies partly because they are still developing object permanence.
Before object permanence develops, an infant stops searching once a toy is hidden under a cloth.
The ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, desires and intentions, which may differ from yours, and to use this to predict what they will do.
Where you use it
Studied in developmental psychology with false-belief tasks such as the Sally-Anne test, which most children pass by around age four or five. It is also discussed in autism research and in social cognition.
Examples
Three-year-olds usually fail the false-belief tasks used to test theory of mind.
Theory of mind lets children understand that a friend can be fooled by a trick.
Usage note
Despite the name, it is an ability, not a scientific theory; a closely related clinical term is mentalisation (US mentalization).
Common phrases
false-belief task · develop a theory of mind · theory of mind tasks · mentalising
A child's inborn, biologically based style of reacting to the world, such as activity level, mood and how easily they adapt, which forms a basis for later personality.
Where you use it
Thomas and Chess described easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up temperaments; later researchers such as Jerome Kagan studied behavioural inhibition. Temperament is usually discussed for infants and children, personality for adults.
Examples
Infants with a shy, inhibited temperament were more likely to show social anxiety later in childhood.
Parents often notice their child's temperament in the first months of life.
Usage note
In everyday English, temperamental means moody and unpredictable, which is much narrower than the psychological term temperament.
The fairly stable pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes a person different from others and consistent across situations and over time.
Where you use it
A whole subfield, personality psychology, studies it through traits, types and theories. You will often see personality traits, personality tests and personality disorders. In everyday English 'a big personality' means a lively, noticeable person.
Examples
Personality was measured with a 60-item questionnaire based on the Big Five.
Twin studies suggest that genes explain a substantial part of the differences in personality.
Usage note
Do not use character as a synonym in psychology; it usually suggests moral qualities. Personality is the neutral scientific term.
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel or behave in a certain way across many situations, such as being outgoing, anxious or organised.
Where you use it
Used in personality psychology (trait theory, the Big Five traits) and in anxiety research (trait anxiety versus state anxiety). Traits are treated as dimensions: people score higher or lower on them rather than simply having them or not.
Examples
Conscientiousness is the personality trait most consistently linked to job performance.
Trait anxiety was measured with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.
Usage note
In British English the final t is sometimes silent (/treɪ/), but /treɪt/ is the safer choice internationally.
Common phrases
personality trait · trait theory · trait anxiety · score high on a trait
A person's overall judgement of their own worth, that is, how much they value, accept and respect themselves.
Where you use it
Common in personality, social, developmental and clinical psychology. People have high or low self-esteem, and researchers often measure it with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Low self-esteem appears in many case formulations.
Examples
Being bullied in early adolescence was associated with lower self-esteem at age 18.
Her self-esteem seems to depend almost entirely on her exam results.
Usage note
Self-esteem (benlik saygısı) is not the same as self-confidence (özgüven), which is belief in your ability to do things.
A widely used model that describes personality with five broad traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.
Where you use it
Also called the five-factor model (FFM) and remembered with the acronym OCEAN. Researchers measure it with inventories such as the NEO-PI-R or the Big Five Inventory and report a score for each dimension.
Examples
We measured the Big Five traits with a short 44-item inventory.
Neuroticism is the Big Five trait most closely linked to anxiety and depression.
Usage note
Neuroticism here is a normal personality dimension (emotional instability), not a diagnosis; some newer models call it negative emotionality.
Common phrases
Big Five traits · Big Five Inventory · five-factor model · OCEAN model
A personality trait describing how outgoing, talkative, energetic and sociable a person is, and how much they seek stimulation and the company of others.
Where you use it
One of the Big Five traits, described as a dimension by Jung and later by Eysenck. People score high or low on extraversion, and the opposite end is introversion. A person high in it is an extravert.
Examples
People high in extraversion reported more positive emotions in everyday life.
Extraversion predicted how often participants joined social activities.
Usage note
Psychologists usually spell it extraversion and extravert; extroversion and extrovert are common in everyday writing.
Common phrases
high in extraversion · extraversion and introversion · extraversion scale
In psychodynamic theory, an unconscious mental strategy that protects a person from anxiety or painful feelings, such as denial, projection or repression.
Where you use it
Developed by Sigmund and Anna Freud and later grouped by maturity, from immature defences (denial, projection) to mature ones (humour, sublimation). Clinicians say a client uses or relies on a defence.
Examples
Projection is a defence mechanism in which we see our own unwanted feelings in others.
His constant joking may be a defence mechanism that keeps painful topics at a distance.
Usage note
US spelling: defense mechanism. Do not confuse defence mechanisms (mostly unconscious) with coping strategies (mostly conscious).
Common phrases
use a defence mechanism · immature defences · mature defences · ego defence
In psychodynamic theory, the part of the mind holding thoughts, memories and wishes that we are not aware of but that still influence our feelings and behaviour.
Where you use it
Used as a noun (the unconscious) in psychoanalysis and as an adjective (unconscious processes, unconscious bias) in cognitive and social psychology, where it simply means outside awareness. In medicine, unconscious also means not awake.
Examples
Freud believed that dreams offered a route into the unconscious.
Unconscious bias training aims to make staff aware of hidden assumptions.
Usage note
Freud's term is the unconscious; subconscious is a popular word that most psychologists avoid in technical writing.
Common phrases
the unconscious mind · unconscious processes · unconscious bias · make the unconscious conscious
A clear, testable prediction about the relationship between variables, usually based on a theory or earlier findings, that a study is designed to check.
Where you use it
Central in research papers and lab reports. Researchers state, test, support or reject a hypothesis, and statistics texts talk about the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The plural is hypotheses.
Examples
Our hypothesis was that sleep deprivation would impair working memory.
The results supported the first hypothesis but not the second.
Usage note
Write 'the data support the hypothesis', not 'prove' it; scientific writing avoids claiming proof.
Common phrases
test a hypothesis · null hypothesis · support the hypothesis · reject the hypothesis
A person who takes part in a research study, for example by completing tasks, answering questionnaires or being interviewed.
Where you use it
The preferred term in modern psychology papers and ethics forms; older texts say subjects. Researchers recruit, screen, randomise and debrief participants, and method sections usually begin with a 'Participants' subsection.
Examples
We recruited 120 participants through university mailing lists.
All participants gave written informed consent.
Usage note
APA style prefers participants to subjects for people who take part in research.
Common phrases
recruit participants · debrief participants · participants were randomly assigned · study participants
A study in which the researcher deliberately changes one factor and measures the effect on another, while keeping other conditions as constant as possible.
Where you use it
Unlike correlational studies, experiments allow conclusions about cause and effect. You design, run, conduct or replicate an experiment; 'experimental condition' and 'experimental group' are standard terms in method sections.
Examples
In the first experiment, participants watched either a sad or a neutral film clip.
We ran the experiment online to reach a larger sample.
Usage note
Do not confuse experiment (deney) with experience (deneyim); Turkish speakers often mix them up because the Turkish words are so similar.
Common phrases
conduct an experiment · run an experiment · experimental group · lab experiment · field experiment
The group of people actually studied in research, chosen from a larger population so that the results can, ideally, be generalised to it.
Where you use it
Used in every method section: sample size, a representative sample, a convenience sample, a clinical sample. Researchers recruit or draw a sample, and reviewers often criticise samples that are small or made up only of students.
Examples
The sample consisted of 240 first-year university students.
With such a small sample, the study had little power to detect an effect.
Usage note
In research, sample means 'örneklem', not 'örnek'; the whole group it comes from is the population ('evren').
The factor that a researcher deliberately changes or compares in a study to see whether it causes changes in another variable.
Where you use it
Often shortened to IV in lab reports and lectures. Researchers manipulate the independent variable and measure the dependent variable; each value of the IV is called a level or condition.
Examples
The independent variable was the type of feedback: positive, negative or none.
Make sure your independent variable has at least two clearly different levels.
Common phrases
manipulate the independent variable · levels of the independent variable · independent variable (IV)
The outcome that a researcher measures in a study to see whether it is affected by changes in the independent variable.
Where you use it
Shortened to DV. Typical dependent variables in psychology are reaction times, accuracy, questionnaire scores and symptom ratings. In regression and clinical trials people also say outcome variable or outcome measure.
Examples
Reaction time was the main dependent variable in both experiments.
Choose a dependent variable that you can measure reliably.
A statistical relationship in which two variables change together, in the same direction (positive) or in opposite directions (negative), without showing which causes which.
Where you use it
Usually reported with a coefficient such as Pearson's r, which runs from -1 to +1. Researchers find or report a correlation and describe it as weak, moderate or strong. The classic warning is 'correlation does not imply causation'.
Examples
There was a moderate positive correlation between screen time and sleep problems.
A correlation of r = .80 suggests a strong relationship, but it says nothing about cause.
How consistent a measure is: a reliable test gives similar results when it is repeated, when different raters score it, or across its items.
Where you use it
A core term in psychometrics and method sections. Common types are test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability and internal consistency, often reported as Cronbach's alpha. It is usually discussed together with validity.
Examples
The scale showed good test-retest reliability over four weeks.
Two coders rated each interview to check inter-rater reliability.
Usage note
Reliability is consistency, validity is accuracy: a broken scale that always shows 5 kg too much is reliable but not valid.
The extent to which a test really measures what it claims to measure, or to which a study's conclusions are justified by the way it was designed.
Where you use it
Used for measures (construct, content and criterion validity) and for studies (internal and external validity). Researchers establish or assess validity, and reviewers often ask about threats to validity.
Examples
Before using the Turkish version, we tested its validity in a clinical sample.
Testing only students limits the external validity of the findings.
Common phrases
construct validity · internal validity · external validity · threats to validity · validity and reliability
A person's voluntary agreement to take part in research or treatment after being told clearly what it involves, including risks, benefits and the right to withdraw.
Where you use it
Required by ethics committees and professional codes. Researchers obtain informed consent, often with a consent form; with children, parents give consent and the child gives assent. Therapists also gain informed consent before therapy starts.
Examples
Informed consent was obtained from all participants before testing.
The ethics committee asked us to simplify the informed consent form for older adults.
Common phrases
obtain informed consent · give informed consent · informed consent form · withdraw consent
The group in a study that does not receive the treatment or manipulation being tested, so that its results can be compared with those of the group that does.
Where you use it
Common in experiments and clinical trials. A control group may receive nothing, a placebo or usual care, or wait for treatment (a wait-list control). The other group is the experimental, treatment or intervention group.
Examples
The control group completed the same questionnaires but received no training.
Without a control group, we cannot tell whether symptoms improved because of therapy or simply over time.
Common phrases
wait-list control group · placebo control group · compared with the control group · assign to the control group
Placing participants into the groups of a study by chance, so that each person has an equal chance of being in any group and the groups are similar at the start.
Where you use it
The feature that defines a true experiment or a randomised controlled trial (RCT). Method sections say 'participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions'. Without it, a design is called quasi-experimental.
Examples
Random assignment makes it unlikely that differences between the groups explain the results.
We used a computer program for random assignment to the three conditions.
Usage note
Random assignment (who goes into which group) is different from random sampling (who is chosen for the study at all).
Common phrases
random assignment to conditions · randomly assigned · randomised controlled trial · quasi-experimental design
A sign that a result would be unlikely if there were really no effect, usually judged by whether the p-value falls below a set level such as .05.
Where you use it
Reported in results sections: 'the difference was statistically significant, p = .003'. Many journals now also ask for effect sizes and confidence intervals, because significance alone says nothing about how large or important an effect is.
Examples
The difference between the groups did not reach statistical significance.
With very large samples, even tiny effects can be statistically significant.
Usage note
In statistics, significant means 'unlikely to be due to chance', not 'important'. In APA style the leading zero is dropped: p < .05.
An extra variable linked to both the supposed cause and the outcome, so that it may explain an apparent effect instead of the variable being studied.
Where you use it
Often shortened to confound. Researchers control for, rule out or adjust for confounding variables through random assignment, matching or statistical control. Reviewers commonly ask whether a confounding variable was considered.
Examples
Age may be a confounding variable, because the older participants also slept less.
We controlled for income as a possible confounding variable.
Common phrases
control for a confounding variable · rule out confounding variables · potential confounding variable
To repeat a study, usually with new participants, to see whether the original findings appear again; a finding that appears again is also said to replicate.
Where you use it
Central to debates about the replication crisis in psychology since the 2010s. Researchers replicate a study or fail to replicate a finding; the noun is replication (direct replication, conceptual replication, replication study).
Examples
Several well-known priming effects failed to replicate in large studies.
We plan to replicate the experiment with a larger and more diverse sample.
Common phrases
replicate a finding · fail to replicate · replication study · replication crisis
A number that shows how large a difference or relationship is, independent of sample size, such as Cohen's d or a correlation coefficient.
Where you use it
APA style asks authors to report effect sizes alongside significance tests. Cohen's rough guide calls d = 0.2 small, 0.5 medium and 0.8 large. Meta-analyses combine effect sizes from many studies.
Examples
The therapy group improved more, with a medium effect size (d = 0.52).
A significant result with a tiny effect size may have little practical importance.
Common phrases
report effect sizes · small effect size · large effect size · Cohen's d
A study that follows the same people over a long period, measuring them repeatedly to see how they change and what predicts later outcomes.
Where you use it
Common in developmental and health psychology, for example in birth cohort studies. It is contrasted with a cross-sectional study, which compares different age groups at one point in time. A typical problem is attrition, as participants drop out.
Examples
The longitudinal study followed about 1,000 children from birth to age 32.
In our longitudinal study, about 20% of participants had dropped out by the third wave.
Common phrases
longitudinal data · longitudinal design · cross-sectional study · follow-up wave
The process of identifying which mental or physical condition explains a person's difficulties, or the name of the condition that is identified.
Where you use it
Usually based on DSM-5 or ICD-11 criteria. You make, give or receive a diagnosis, and a person is diagnosed with a condition. Clinicians also talk about a provisional diagnosis and a differential diagnosis. The plural is diagnoses.
Examples
The diagnosis was confirmed after a structured clinical interview.
He was diagnosed with ADHD at the age of 32.
Usage note
The verb is diagnose, not 'diagnosis'; the plural noun diagnoses ends in /-siːz/.
Common phrases
make a diagnosis · receive a diagnosis · be diagnosed with · differential diagnosis · diagnostic criteria
The process of gathering information about a person through interviews, observation and tests in order to understand their difficulties and plan help.
Where you use it
A key word in clinical and educational psychology. You carry out, conduct or complete an assessment; services talk about initial assessment, cognitive assessment and risk assessment. Assessment is broader than testing and does not always lead to a diagnosis.
Examples
The initial assessment takes about ninety minutes and includes a few questionnaires.
We completed a cognitive assessment before suggesting any changes at school.
Common phrases
carry out an assessment · initial assessment · cognitive assessment · psychological assessment · assessment tool
A change in thinking, feeling, behaviour or the body that a person experiences and reports, and that may point to a health problem.
Where you use it
Used in clinical interviews, case notes and diagnostic criteria. Clinicians ask about the onset, duration and severity of symptoms and describe symptoms as improving, worsening or persisting.
Examples
For this diagnosis, symptoms must be present for at least two weeks.
Her main symptoms are poor sleep, irritability and constant worry.
Usage note
In medicine, a symptom is what the patient reports and a sign is what the clinician observes.
Short for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition: the American Psychiatric Association's classification of mental disorders and their diagnostic criteria.
Where you use it
Published in 2013, with a text revision (DSM-5-TR) in 2022. Widely used in research and in the US; many other countries use the WHO's ICD-11 for official coding. Clinicians say a person 'meets DSM-5 criteria' for a disorder.
Examples
All patients met DSM-5 criteria for major depressive disorder.
DSM-5 replaced the separate autism diagnoses with a single autism spectrum disorder.
Usage note
Since DSM-5 the edition number is written with an Arabic numeral, not a Roman one as in DSM-IV.
Common phrases
DSM-5 criteria · meet DSM-5 criteria · DSM-5-TR · according to DSM-5
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person at the same time, such as depression together with an anxiety disorder.
Where you use it
Very common in clinical research and case reports. The adjective is comorbid: comorbid anxiety, comorbid with ADHD. High comorbidity rates are one reason clinicians rely on case formulation rather than diagnosis alone.
Examples
Comorbidity between depression and anxiety is the rule rather than the exception.
Patients with substance use problems were excluded because of high comorbidity.
Common phrases
high comorbidity · psychiatric comorbidity · comorbid with · comorbid conditions
To check a group of people, usually with a short questionnaire or interview, to identify those who may have a problem and need a fuller assessment.
Where you use it
You screen people for a condition (screen for depression) using a screening tool or questionnaire such as the PHQ-9. Researchers also screen potential participants against inclusion criteria. A positive screen is not a diagnosis.
Examples
The clinic screens all new mothers for postnatal depression.
We screened 300 volunteers and invited 80 of them to the main study.
A shared, working explanation of how a client's problems developed and what keeps them going, built from the assessment and used to plan therapy.
Where you use it
Often just called formulation, especially in UK clinical psychology. Clinicians develop, share and revise a formulation; CBT formulations often include predisposing, precipitating, perpetuating and protective factors (the 4 Ps).
Examples
We drew the case formulation together on the whiteboard in the third session.
Her case formulation links early criticism, perfectionism and her current burnout.
Common phrases
develop a case formulation · share the formulation · CBT formulation · the 4 Ps
A structured evaluation of how likely it is that a person may harm themselves or others, or be harmed, and of the factors that raise or lower that risk.
Where you use it
Routine in mental health services, especially at first assessment and when circumstances change. Notes record risk to self, risk to others and risk from others, together with protective factors and a safety plan.
Examples
A risk assessment is completed at every first appointment.
The risk assessment noted strong protective factors, including close family support.
Common phrases
carry out a risk assessment · risk to self · protective factors · safety plan · update the risk assessment
Relating to the measurement of psychological qualities such as intelligence, personality and symptoms, and to the methods used to check how good those measures are.
Where you use it
Common phrases are psychometric test, psychometric properties (such as reliability and validity) and psychometric evaluation. The noun psychometrics names the field. Employers also use psychometric tests to assess job applicants.
Examples
The Turkish adaptation of the scale showed good psychometric properties.
Applicants complete a psychometric test before the interview.
Common phrases
psychometric properties · psychometric test · psychometric evaluation · psychometrics
Treatment of psychological problems through a structured, confidential relationship with a trained professional, mainly using conversation rather than medication.
Where you use it
Often shortened to therapy; in the UK, talking therapy is also common. People are 'in therapy' or 'in psychotherapy', and a psychotherapist works within a specific approach such as CBT, psychodynamic or systemic therapy.
Examples
Psychotherapy and medication are often combined for severe depression.
She has been in psychotherapy for a year and feels much more confident.
Usage note
The p in psych- is silent: /saɪ/. The same is true for psychology, psychologist and psychosis.
Common phrases
individual psychotherapy · group psychotherapy · be in psychotherapy · psychotherapy session
A person who receives psychological therapy, counselling or another professional service; in therapy this word is often used instead of patient.
Where you use it
Common among psychologists, counsellors and psychotherapists, especially outside hospitals, because it stresses a collaborative relationship. Psychiatrists and hospital teams usually say patient. Typical phrases: see a client, work with clients, client-centred.
Examples
I see six clients on Mondays, so I keep my notes short.
The client agreed to keep a thought record between sessions.
Usage note
Do not translate client as 'müşteri' in a therapy context; 'danışan' is the professional Turkish term.
Common phrases
see a client · work with clients · client-centred therapy · client consent
A structured, time-limited form of psychotherapy that helps people notice and change unhelpful thoughts and behaviours that keep their problems going.
Where you use it
Usually called CBT in speech and writing. It is one of the most widely researched therapies and appears in many clinical guidelines for anxiety and depression. Typical tools include thought records, behavioural experiments and homework.
Examples
She was offered twelve sessions of cognitive behavioural therapy for panic disorder.
In cognitive behavioural therapy, homework between sessions is an essential part of treatment.
Usage note
US spelling: cognitive behavioral therapy. Some authors write cognitive-behavioural with a hyphen; both forms are correct.
Common phrases
CBT therapist · a course of CBT · trauma-focused CBT · deliver CBT · CBT techniques
One meeting between a therapist and a client, often lasting about 50 minutes, or one period of testing in a research study.
Where you use it
Therapists talk about the first session, weekly sessions, between sessions and missed sessions; a course of therapy has a set number of sessions. Researchers say testing session or experimental session.
Examples
In our first session we agreed on three goals for therapy.
Each testing session lasted about forty minutes.
Usage note
Turkish 'seans' comes from French séance, but in English a séance is a meeting to contact the dead. Always say session.
Common phrases
therapy session · weekly sessions · between sessions · miss a session · end the session
Professional talking support that helps people explore problems, feelings and choices, often focused on current life difficulties and usually shorter than long-term psychotherapy.
Where you use it
Common in schools, universities, workplaces and primary care. People go to or have counselling, and a counsellor provides it. The line between counselling and psychotherapy is blurred and differs between countries.
Examples
The university offers free counselling to all students.
After her father's death she had six sessions of bereavement counselling.
Usage note
US spelling: counseling, counselor. Do not confuse counsel (to advise) with council (a governing body).
Common phrases
have counselling · bereavement counselling · student counselling service · counselling psychologist
A psychologist with postgraduate training in assessing and treating mental health problems through psychological methods, usually working in health services or private practice.
Where you use it
A protected title in many countries, with set training routes such as a clinical doctorate in the UK or a PhD or PsyD in the US. Clinical psychologists assess, formulate, deliver therapy and supervise others; in most countries they do not prescribe medication.
Examples
The clinical psychologist carried out a full assessment before therapy began.
She works as a clinical psychologist in a child and adolescent mental health service.
Usage note
A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who can prescribe; a clinical psychologist usually cannot. Do not use the two titles interchangeably.
Common phrases
trainee clinical psychologist · qualified clinical psychologist · refer to a clinical psychologist
The professional duty to keep what a client or research participant shares private, except in clearly defined situations such as a serious risk of harm.
Where you use it
Explained at the start of therapy and in consent forms. Clinicians talk about the limits of confidentiality and breaking confidentiality; researchers promise anonymity and confidentiality and store data securely.
Examples
In the first session I explain the limits of confidentiality.
Confidentiality may be broken if there is a serious risk to the client or to others.
Common phrases
limits of confidentiality · break confidentiality · maintain confidentiality · anonymity and confidentiality
To send a person to another professional or service for assessment, treatment or support, usually with a letter explaining why.
Where you use it
Family doctors refer patients to psychology services, and therapists refer clients on when a problem is outside their competence. The noun is referral: make a referral, accept a referral, self-referral.
Examples
Her GP referred her to the community mental health team.
If the eating problems get worse, I will refer him to a specialist service.
Usage note
The stress is on the second syllable (re-FER), and the r is doubled before -ed and -ing: referred, referring. Referral is also stressed on -FER-.
Common phrases
refer to · refer on · make a referral · referral letter · self-referral
The collaborative bond between therapist and client, including trust, agreement on the goals of therapy and agreement on the tasks used to reach them.
Where you use it
One of the most researched common factors in therapy; a stronger alliance tends to predict better outcomes across approaches. Also called working alliance or therapeutic relationship. Therapists build, repair and monitor the alliance.
Examples
A strong therapeutic alliance predicted lower dropout in the first month.
After the missed sessions, we spent time repairing the therapeutic alliance.
Common phrases
build a therapeutic alliance · rupture in the alliance · working alliance · strong therapeutic alliance
A form of talking therapy, developed from psychoanalysis, that explores how unconscious feelings, early relationships and repeated patterns shape a person's present difficulties.
Where you use it
Usually less structured than CBT, with close attention to the therapy relationship, including transference. It can be short-term or long-term. Practitioners talk about insight, defences and working through.
Examples
In psychodynamic therapy, we noticed that she expected me to criticise her, just as her father had.
The trial compared CBT with short-term psychodynamic therapy for depression.
Paying attention on purpose to present-moment experience, such as thoughts, feelings and body sensations, with openness and without judging it.
Where you use it
Comes from meditation traditions and is used in programmes such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Researchers measure trait mindfulness; therapists teach mindfulness practices.
Examples
MBCT combines mindfulness practice with elements of cognitive therapy.
We start each group with a five-minute mindfulness exercise.
A behavioural treatment in which a person faces feared situations, objects, memories or sensations gradually and safely, so that fear decreases and avoidance stops.
Where you use it
Used for phobias, OCD, PTSD and other anxiety problems, often within CBT. Therapist and client build an exposure hierarchy; exposure can be in vivo (in real life), imaginal or interoceptive (focused on body sensations).
Examples
We started exposure therapy with photos of dogs before moving on to a real dog.
Exposure therapy works partly by showing that the feared outcome does not happen.
Common phrases
exposure hierarchy · in vivo exposure · imaginal exposure · exposure and response prevention
Giving clients and families clear information about a mental health condition, its causes, its course and its treatment, so that they can understand and manage it better.
Where you use it
Part of most therapies, often in the first sessions, and also delivered in groups or through leaflets. Clinicians give or provide psychoeducation about, for example, the cycle of anxiety or early warning signs of relapse.
Examples
The first session was mostly psychoeducation about how panic attacks work.
In the trial, family psychoeducation was linked to lower relapse rates.
Common phrases
provide psychoeducation · family psychoeducation · group psychoeducation · psychoeducational materials
A person's emotional, psychological and social well-being, which affects how they think, feel, handle stress and relate to others.
Where you use it
Used by professionals, policy documents and the public. It describes a continuum, not only illness; 'mental health problems' or 'mental health conditions' is the neutral way to talk about difficulties. Often used before another noun: mental health services, mental health nurse.
Examples
The university has expanded its mental health services for students.
Poor sleep and loneliness both predicted worse mental health a year later.
Common phrases
mental health services · mental health problems · mental health professional · promote mental health
A clinically significant pattern of disturbance in thinking, emotion or behaviour that causes distress or problems in daily functioning, as defined in systems such as DSM-5 and ICD-11.
Where you use it
The standard term in diagnostic manuals and research. Clinicians and many services also say mental health condition or mental illness. 'Mental disorder' sounds formal, so it appears more in writing than in conversations with clients.
Examples
Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental disorders worldwide.
A mental disorder is diagnosed only when the symptoms cause significant distress or impairment.
Usage note
Do not translate 'ruhsal hastalık' as 'mental disease'; English speakers say mental illness or mental disorder.
Common phrases
diagnose a mental disorder · common mental disorders · severe mental disorder · classify mental disorders
A mental health condition marked by persistent low mood or loss of interest and pleasure, often with changes in sleep, appetite, energy and concentration.
Where you use it
Clinicians usually say depression or major depressive disorder (the DSM-5 name). In everyday English 'I'm depressed' can simply mean sad, so clinical texts add duration and severity: mild, moderate or severe depression.
Examples
She was diagnosed with depression after months of low mood and poor sleep.
The trial compared two treatments for moderate depression in adolescents.
Usage note
In economics, a depression is a long and severe economic slump; context makes the meaning clear.
Common phrases
major depression · symptoms of depression · be diagnosed with depression · postnatal depression
A feeling of worry, tension or fear about something that might happen, often with physical signs such as a fast heartbeat; when intense and lasting, it can be part of a disorder.
Where you use it
Both an everyday and a clinical word. Clinicians separate normal anxiety from anxiety disorders such as generalised anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder and panic disorder. Common phrases: experience anxiety, reduce anxiety, anxiety symptoms.
Examples
Mild anxiety before an exam can actually improve performance.
His anxiety gets worse in crowded places, so he has started avoiding them.
Usage note
Anxiety is pronounced /æŋˈzaɪəti/, but the adjective anxious is /ˈæŋkʃəs/, with the stress on the first syllable.
Common phrases
social anxiety · anxiety disorder · reduce anxiety · health anxiety · performance anxiety
A deeply distressing experience, such as violence, a serious accident or a disaster, or the lasting psychological harm that such an event can cause.
Where you use it
Clinicians use trauma for both the event and its effects: trauma survivors, trauma-focused therapy, trauma-informed care. In medicine, trauma means physical injury, so psychologists may say psychological trauma to be clear.
Examples
Many of the firefighters in the sample had been exposed to trauma at work.
Trauma-focused therapy helps clients process memories they have been avoiding.
Usage note
Both /ˈtrɔːmə/ and /ˈtraʊmə/ are common; the second is frequent in American English.
Short for post-traumatic stress disorder, a condition that can follow a traumatic event, with intrusive memories, avoidance, negative changes in mood and thinking, and constant alertness.
Where you use it
Clinicians and researchers almost always use the abbreviation. In DSM-5 it belongs to the trauma- and stressor-related disorders, and symptoms must last more than a month. Well-studied treatments include trauma-focused CBT and EMDR.
Examples
Flashbacks and nightmares are among the most typical symptoms of PTSD.
He was diagnosed with PTSD after a serious car accident.
Usage note
ICD-11 also includes complex PTSD (CPTSD) as a separate diagnosis; DSM-5 does not.
Short for obsessive-compulsive disorder, a condition with unwanted, repeated thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive actions or mental rituals (compulsions) performed to reduce distress.
Where you use it
Used by clinicians and the public. In DSM-5 it heads the chapter on obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. The main psychological treatment is CBT with exposure and response prevention (ERP).
Examples
Her OCD involves intrusive thoughts about contamination and hours of handwashing.
Exposure and response prevention is the first-line psychological treatment for OCD.
Usage note
In casual speech people say 'I'm so OCD' about being tidy; professionals avoid this because it trivialises a serious condition.
Common phrases
have OCD · OCD symptoms · treatment for OCD · obsessions and compulsions
Short for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, a neurodevelopmental condition with persistent inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity that affect daily life.
Where you use it
Diagnosed in both children and adults. DSM-5 describes three presentations: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive and combined. Assessment uses interviews and rating scales completed by parents, teachers or the person.
Examples
Many adults seek an ADHD assessment after one of their children is diagnosed.
His teachers completed an ADHD rating scale before the clinic appointment.
Usage note
ADD is an older name for the inattentive type; current manuals use ADHD for all presentations.
A mood disorder in which a person has episodes of mania or hypomania, with very high energy and mood, usually alternating with episodes of depression.
Where you use it
DSM-5 distinguishes bipolar I (at least one manic episode) and bipolar II (hypomania and major depression). Clinicians talk about episodes, mood stabilisers and early warning signs of relapse. The older term manic depression is rarely used now.
Examples
He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder after a manic episode at university.
Psychoeducation helps people with bipolar disorder spot early warning signs.
Usage note
Avoid using bipolar as a casual adjective for someone whose mood changes quickly; it is a clinical diagnosis.
Common phrases
bipolar I disorder · bipolar II disorder · manic episode · mood stabiliser
A serious mental disorder involving psychosis, such as hallucinations and delusions, together with disorganised thinking and reduced motivation or emotional expression.
Where you use it
Clinicians describe positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) and negative symptoms (low motivation, flat affect). DSM-5 places it among schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders. Person-first wording such as 'a person with schizophrenia' is preferred.
Examples
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia often affect work and relationships more than hallucinations do.
The study tested a family intervention for people with schizophrenia and their relatives.
Usage note
Schizophrenia does not mean 'split personality'; that popular idea confuses it with dissociative identity disorder. Schizo- is pronounced /skɪtsə/.
A sudden wave of intense fear that peaks within minutes, with physical symptoms such as a pounding heart, breathlessness and dizziness, and a fear of dying or losing control.
Where you use it
People have or experience panic attacks. Panic attacks can occur in many conditions; panic disorder is diagnosed when they are recurrent and unexpected and are followed by persistent worry about further attacks.
Examples
Her first panic attack happened on a crowded train, and she thought she was having a heart attack.
We drew a diagram of how his panic attacks build up from a single body sensation.
Usage note
In English, panic attack is the event and panic disorder is the diagnosis; Turkish 'panik atak' is often used for both.
Common phrases
have a panic attack · panic disorder · recurrent panic attacks · trigger a panic attack
An intense, lasting and out-of-proportion fear of a specific object or situation, such as spiders, heights or flying, that leads to avoidance.
Where you use it
DSM-5 uses specific phobia for fears of particular things and lists social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia separately. Exposure therapy is the main psychological treatment. Many specific names end in -phobia, such as claustrophobia.
Examples
Her phobia of flying meant she had not visited her family abroad for years.
Specific phobias usually respond well to a few sessions of exposure therapy.
Usage note
Say 'a phobia of dogs' or 'a phobia about dogs', not 'a phobia from dogs'.
Common phrases
specific phobia · social phobia · a phobia of · overcome a phobia
A neurodevelopmental condition with lasting differences in social communication and interaction, together with restricted or repetitive behaviours, interests or sensory responses.
Where you use it
Often shortened to ASD or simply called autism. Since DSM-5, earlier diagnoses such as Asperger's syndrome fall under this single category, with levels of support needed. Clinicians, researchers and autistic people openly discuss which wording to use.
Examples
The team uses standardised observation tools when assessing autism spectrum disorder.
Girls with autism spectrum disorder are often diagnosed later than boys.
Usage note
Many autistic people prefer identity-first language ('autistic person'), while some services use person-first language ('person with autism'); follow the preference of the person or community you work with.
A state in which a person loses some contact with reality, usually experiencing hallucinations, delusions or very disorganised thinking.
Where you use it
A description of symptoms rather than a single diagnosis: it can occur in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, severe depression or with drug use. Services talk about first-episode psychosis and early intervention in psychosis. The adjective is psychotic.
Examples
She was admitted to hospital during her first episode of psychosis at the age of 19.
Heavy cannabis use is associated with a higher risk of psychosis in young people.
Usage note
In everyday English 'psycho' and 'psychotic' are used as insults; professionals avoid them and say 'a person experiencing psychosis'.
Common phrases
first-episode psychosis · early intervention in psychosis · psychotic symptoms · drug-induced psychosis
Deliberately hurting or injuring oneself, for example by cutting or burning, often as a way of coping with overwhelming emotional pain.
Where you use it
The standard term in UK services and research; American texts often say self-injury or non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). It is used as a noun and as a verb. Clinicians ask about it calmly and directly as part of a risk assessment.
Examples
She started to self-harm at 14, when things at home became very difficult.
School staff received training on how to respond to students who self-harm.
Usage note
Older terms such as 'self-mutilation' are now avoided; neutral wording like self-harm or self-injury is preferred.
Common phrases
history of self-harm · self-harm behaviour · non-suicidal self-injury · risk of self-harm
A fairly lasting evaluation of a person, group, object or idea that combines beliefs, feelings and a tendency to act in a positive or negative way.
Where you use it
A key concept in social psychology, measured with attitude scales and studied in research on persuasion and prejudice. In everyday English 'an attitude' can also mean an unfriendly manner, as in 'he's got an attitude'.
Examples
The survey measured attitudes towards people with mental illness.
People do not always behave in line with their stated attitudes.
A simplified, widely shared belief about the characteristics of people in a particular group, applied to individuals regardless of who they really are.
Where you use it
A key term in social psychology, alongside prejudice and discrimination. Researchers talk about gender stereotypes, stereotype threat and implicit stereotypes. It is also a verb: to be stereotyped as something.
Examples
Gender stereotypes can influence which careers children see as possible for themselves.
Stereotype threat may lower test performance when people fear confirming a negative stereotype.
Usage note
In social psychology, stereotype is the belief, prejudice is the feeling, and discrimination is the behaviour.
A negative attitude or feeling towards people because they belong to a particular group, formed without enough knowledge or experience of them as individuals.
Where you use it
Studied in social psychology together with stereotypes and discrimination, and in research on contact between groups. People hold, show or reduce prejudice, and it can be explicit or implicit.
Examples
Positive contact between groups is one of the best-studied ways of reducing prejudice.
Some participants showed implicit prejudice even when their explicit attitudes were positive.
Changing one's behaviour or beliefs to match those of a group because of real or imagined pressure from others.
Where you use it
Classic research includes Solomon Asch's line-judgement studies. Social psychologists distinguish normative influence (wanting to be accepted) from informational influence (assuming the group knows better). The verb is conform to.
Examples
In Asch's studies, conformity dropped sharply when just one other person gave the correct answer.
Conformity to peer norms is often especially strong in early adolescence.
Common phrases
pressure to conform · conformity to norms · Asch conformity experiments · social conformity
The uncomfortable tension people feel when they hold two conflicting beliefs, or when their actions go against their beliefs, which often leads them to change one of them.
Where you use it
Comes from Leon Festinger's theory (1957). Social psychologists use it to explain attitude change and how people justify their choices; it is now also used loosely in journalism and everyday speech.
Examples
Smokers who know the health risks often reduce cognitive dissonance by playing them down.
Participants paid only one dollar experienced more cognitive dissonance than those paid twenty.
Common phrases
reduce cognitive dissonance · experience cognitive dissonance · dissonance theory
Following a direct order from a person seen as an authority, even when it conflicts with one's own judgement or values.
Where you use it
Best known from Stanley Milgram's experiments in the 1960s, in which many participants followed instructions to give what they believed were painful electric shocks. It differs from conformity, where the pressure is unspoken and comes from peers.
Examples
In Milgram's original study, obedience was far higher than experts had predicted.
Obedience dropped when the experimenter gave the orders by telephone.
Usage note
Milgram's studies are also a standard example in research ethics teaching, because participants experienced real distress.
Common phrases
obedience to authority · destructive obedience · Milgram's obedience studies
The tendency to explain other people's behaviour by their personality or character while underestimating the influence of the situation they are in.
Where you use it
A classic concept from attribution theory, named by Lee Ross in 1977 and also called correspondence bias. It is often contrasted with the actor-observer bias and is thought to be stronger in individualistic cultures.
Examples
Assuming a late colleague is lazy rather than stuck in traffic is a typical fundamental attribution error.
The fundamental attribution error can affect how clinicians judge clients who miss appointments.
Common phrases
make the fundamental attribution error · attribution theory · correspondence bias · situational factors
The finding that people are less likely to help someone in an emergency when other people are present, partly because responsibility feels shared.
Where you use it
Studied by John Darley and Bibb Latané in the late 1960s. Explanations include diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance. Recent analyses of real public incidents suggest that in most cases someone does intervene.
Examples
In a classic bystander effect study, participants who were alone reported the smoke much faster than those in groups.
Pointing to one person and asking them directly for help can reduce the bystander effect.
Common phrases
diffusion of responsibility · bystander intervention · pluralistic ignorance
The part of a person's self-concept that comes from belonging to social groups, such as a nation, profession, team or religion, and from the value attached to that membership.
Where you use it
Central to Henri Tajfel and John Turner's social identity theory, which explains in-group favouritism and conflict between groups. Researchers talk about in-groups and out-groups, group identification and minimal group studies.
Examples
In minimal group studies, even randomly formed groups developed a social identity and favoured their own members.
For many fans, their football club is an important part of their social identity.
Common phrases
social identity theory · in-group and out-group · group identification · in-group favouritism
Ten questions from this glossary. Pick the right meaning for each term and see your score.
How to learn psychology vocabulary
Learn each technical term together with its everyday counterpart: cognition and thinking, anxiety and worry, reinforcement and reward. Notice where the technical meaning is narrower than the everyday one.
Read real texts from the field every week, such as journal abstracts, method sections, published case studies and clinical guidelines, and collect phrases like 'participants were randomly assigned' or 'presented with low mood'.
Learn the Greek and Latin building blocks (psych-, cogn-, neuro-, -phobia, -osis): they unlock dozens of terms and remind you that the p in psych- is silent.
Practise out loud: summarise a study's design and results in two minutes, or present a short case formulation in English as if you were in a supervision meeting.
Keep a list of words that look familiar but mean something else, such as session, experiment, sample, significant and client, and check it before you write a report.
Frequently asked questions
How can I learn psychology vocabulary in English effectively?
Study by topic rather than alphabetically, and learn every term with the words that go with it ('test a hypothesis', 'meet the criteria for', 'carry out an assessment'). Read real texts every day, such as journal abstracts, English textbook chapters and published case studies, and reuse the new words when you write lab reports or present a case. Short daily practice works better than long sessions before an exam.
What is the difference between a psychologist, a psychiatrist and a counsellor?
A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specialises in mental health and can prescribe medication. A psychologist has a degree in psychology; a clinical psychologist has further training in assessment and psychological therapy and in most countries does not prescribe. Counsellor is a broader title for someone trained to offer talking support, and its training and legal status differ from country to country. In Turkey, psikolojik danışman usually refers to graduates of guidance and psychological counselling (PDR) programmes.
Should I say patient or client?
Both are correct, but they suggest different settings. Psychiatrists and hospital teams usually say patient; psychologists, counsellors and psychotherapists, especially in outpatient or private practice, often prefer client, and some services say service user. Follow the convention of the place where you work or the journal you write for.
Should I use British or American spelling in psychology?
APA style, which most psychology journals and many universities follow, uses American spelling: behavior, counseling, defense. British and many European publications use behaviour, counselling, defence. This glossary lists the British form and notes the American one; choose one style for a whole text and stay consistent.
Which psychology terms should I learn first?
Start with the words you meet in every course and every clinical conversation: cognition, behaviour, emotion, memory, personality, diagnosis, assessment and psychotherapy, plus the research basics such as hypothesis, participant, sample, variable, reliability and validity. The first tier of this list covers exactly these.
