English for environmental professionals and students
Environment & Climate Vocabulary: 100 Key English Terms
English is the shared language of climate science and environmental work: IPCC reports, international agreements, EU regulations, environmental impact assessments, sustainability reports and the guidelines of banks and investors are written in it first. Knowing the core words for climate change, emissions and carbon, pollution, waste, biodiversity, sustainability, environmental policy and ESG reporting helps you read technical documents accurately, write clear reports and work confidently with international colleagues, auditors and clients.
100 terms
10 topics
47 core terms
201 example sentences
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No account needed. Read the meaning, see where the term is used, then study the examples. Click any word in the lesson for help. You can also select a word and press Alt + Enter.
Climate Change and Climate Science
climate change
noun
Meaning
Long-term change in the Earth's typical temperatures and weather patterns. Today the term mostly refers to the warming caused by human activities such as burning coal, oil and gas.
Where you use it
The central term in science, policy and the media. You tackle, fight or address climate change; you adapt to its effects and mitigate it by cutting emissions. Common phrases are the impacts of climate change, human-induced climate change and climate change policy. Some media and campaigners use the stronger term 'climate crisis'.
Examples
Climate change is making heatwaves in the Mediterranean longer and more intense.
The city's new plan looks at how climate change will affect the water supply over the next 30 years.
Usage note
Do not put 'the' before it in general statements: 'Climate change is a global problem', not 'The climate change is…'.
The rise in the Earth's average surface temperature since the late 1800s, caused mainly by greenhouse gases released by human activities.
Where you use it
Used for the temperature increase itself, often with a number: global warming of 1.5°C, limit global warming to well below 2°C. Scientists prefer 'climate change' for the wider effects such as droughts, floods and sea level rise. In everyday speech the two are often used as synonyms.
Examples
Global warming has already reached more than 1°C above pre-industrial levels.
Every additional tenth of a degree of global warming increases the risk of extreme heat.
Common phrases
limit global warming · global warming of 1.5°C · cause global warming · slow global warming
The natural process in which gases in the atmosphere trap some of the sun's heat and keep the Earth warm. Extra gases from human activities make this effect stronger.
Where you use it
Used in textbooks, reports and the media to explain why the planet is warming. Scientists distinguish the natural greenhouse effect, which makes life possible, from the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by human emissions. Usually used with 'the'.
Examples
Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be well below freezing.
Rising CO2 levels are strengthening the greenhouse effect.
Common phrases
the natural greenhouse effect · enhanced greenhouse effect · strengthen the greenhouse effect · trap heat
Weather that is much more severe than usual for a place and time of year, such as heatwaves, very heavy rain, floods, droughts and strong storms.
Where you use it
Common in news, insurance and climate risk reports. People talk about extreme weather events and their frequency and intensity. Scientists use attribution studies to estimate how much climate change made a particular event more likely or more severe.
Examples
Extreme weather caused more than $2 billion of insured losses in the region last year.
Our supply chain risk analysis now includes extreme weather events such as floods at supplier sites.
Common phrases
extreme weather events · frequency of extreme weather · more extreme weather · extreme weather conditions
The increase in the average level of the world's oceans, caused mainly by melting glaciers and ice sheets and by seawater expanding as it warms.
Where you use it
Used in climate science, coastal planning and insurance, and written 'sea level rise' or 'sea-level rise'. Planners talk about projected sea level rise, coastal flooding, coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion. It is measured in millimeters per year or in centimeters by 2100.
Examples
Since 1900, global sea level rise has reached about 20 centimeters on average.
The design of the port extension allows for half a meter of sea level rise.
A long period with much less rain than normal, which leaves too little water for people, farming, rivers and ecosystems.
Where you use it
Used in hydrology, agriculture and climate reports. Droughts can be severe, prolonged or recurring; regions suffer from, face or are hit by drought. Related words are water scarcity, water stress and drought-resistant crops. An area badly affected is drought-stricken or drought-hit.
Examples
Last year's drought cut wheat yields in the region by almost a third.
After two dry winters, reservoir levels are at a ten-year low and the city has declared a drought alert.
Usage note
Pronunciation: drought rhymes with 'out' (/draʊt/); it is not pronounced like 'thought'.
Common phrases
severe drought · prolonged drought · drought conditions · drought-resistant crops · be hit by drought
Short for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: the UN body that assesses and summarizes the science on climate change, its impacts and possible responses.
Where you use it
Read letter by letter. Set up in 1988, the IPCC does not carry out its own research: scientists review published studies and write assessment reports, such as the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6). The short Summary for Policymakers (SPM) is the most widely quoted part.
Examples
According to the IPCC, global emissions need to fall steeply this decade to keep 1.5°C within reach.
We used the IPCC scenarios in our climate risk analysis.
The conditions before large-scale industry began, usually the period 1850–1900, used as the reference point for measuring global warming and CO2 concentrations.
Where you use it
Almost always used in the phrase 'above pre-industrial levels': warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. People also say 'compared with pre-industrial times'. Scientists use 1850–1900 because that is when reliable global temperature records begin.
Examples
The Paris Agreement aims to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
Methane concentrations are now more than two and a half times pre-industrial levels.
Common phrases
above pre-industrial levels · compared with pre-industrial times · pre-industrial baseline
A critical threshold in the climate system beyond which a change, such as ice sheet collapse or forest dieback, becomes self-reinforcing and very hard or impossible to reverse.
Where you use it
Used in climate science and the media: climate tipping points, cross a tipping point, reach a tipping point. Often discussed examples are the Greenland ice sheet, the Amazon rainforest, permafrost thaw and coral reefs. In business English a tipping point can also be a positive moment when a new technology suddenly spreads.
Examples
Scientists warn that warm-water coral reefs may already be past a tipping point.
Cheaper batteries could push electric trucks past a market tipping point.
Common phrases
climate tipping points · cross a tipping point · reach a tipping point · irreversible change
A period of several days of unusually hot weather for a particular place and season, often with high night-time temperatures as well.
Where you use it
Also written 'heat wave'. Heatwaves are becoming more frequent, longer and more intense because of climate change. They raise the risk of heat stress, wildfires, power cuts and crop losses. Authorities issue heat warnings and open cooling centers. Related: heat stress, urban heat island.
Examples
During the heatwave, electricity demand hit a new record.
Outdoor work on the site will stop between 12:00 and 16:00 during the heatwave.
Common phrases
severe heatwave · heatwave warning · during a heatwave · heat stress · urban heat island
The gradual drop in the pH of seawater as oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which makes it harder for corals, shellfish and plankton to build shells and skeletons.
Where you use it
Sometimes called 'the other CO2 problem'. The oceans have absorbed roughly a quarter of human CO2 emissions, and surface ocean pH has fallen by about 0.1 since pre-industrial times, which means about 30% more acidity. Used in marine science, fisheries and climate reports.
Examples
Ocean acidification is a growing threat to oyster and mussel farms.
The research vessel measures ocean acidification at fixed stations every month.
A gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane or nitrous oxide, that traps heat from the sun and warms the Earth's surface.
Where you use it
Usually shortened to GHG in reports and spreadsheets: GHG emissions, GHG inventory, GHG Protocol. The plural is greenhouse gases. Climate reports usually cover carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and several fluorinated gases used in cooling and industry.
Examples
Agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gases, mainly methane and nitrous oxide.
We report our greenhouse gas emissions every year in line with the GHG Protocol.
A colorless gas, written CO2, released when coal, oil, gas, wood and other carbon-based materials burn. It is the main greenhouse gas produced by human activities.
Where you use it
Written CO2 and read 'C O two'. In climate work it is the reference gas: other gases are converted into CO2 equivalent (CO2e). Concentrations are given in parts per million (ppm) and emissions in tonnes. People also just say 'carbon': carbon emissions, cut carbon.
Examples
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is now above 420 ppm, compared with about 280 ppm before industrialization.
A cement kiln releases carbon dioxide both from burning fuel and from the limestone itself.
Gases or particles released into the air, for example from vehicles, factories, power plants or farms. In climate work the word usually means greenhouse gases.
Where you use it
Emissions are cut, reduced, curbed, measured, reported and offset; they rise, fall or peak. Common phrases: carbon emissions, GHG emissions, emissions reduction target, net emissions, direct and indirect emissions. The verb is emit: 'The plant emits 2 million tonnes of CO2 a year.'
Examples
Transport emissions rose again last year as more people returned to driving.
The company has committed to cutting its emissions by 42% by 2030.
Under the new rules, plants must measure and report their emissions every quarter.
Usage note
In this sense use the plural: 'reduce emissions', 'emissions have fallen'. The singular 'emission' appears mainly in compounds such as 'emission factor' and 'emission limit'.
The total amount of greenhouse gases caused by a person, product, company or event, usually given in tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
Where you use it
Used in business, marketing and everyday speech. You calculate, measure, reduce or shrink your carbon footprint. Companies talk about the carbon footprint of a product (product carbon footprint, PCF) or of their whole operations. In technical reports 'GHG emissions' is often more precise.
Examples
We calculated the carbon footprint of each product, from raw materials to delivery.
Switching to rail freight could cut the carbon footprint of our logistics by a third.
Common phrases
reduce your carbon footprint · calculate the carbon footprint · product carbon footprint · carbon footprint of
A fuel such as coal, oil or natural gas, formed underground over millions of years from the remains of plants and animals. Burning it releases carbon dioxide.
Where you use it
Usually plural: fossil fuels. Common in policy and energy discussions: reliance on fossil fuels, fossil fuel subsidies, transition away from fossil fuels. The word 'fossil' alone is also used as an adjective: fossil power plants, fossil energy.
Examples
Fossil fuels still supply most of the world's energy.
The bank has stopped financing new fossil fuel projects.
Common phrases
burn fossil fuels · reliance on fossil fuels · fossil fuel subsidies · transition away from fossil fuels
A state in which the greenhouse gases a country or company still emits, after deep emission cuts, are balanced by the same amount being removed from the atmosphere.
Where you use it
Used as a noun (reach net zero, net zero by 2050) and before nouns (net-zero target, net-zero pathway, net-zero emissions). Credible net-zero plans focus first on cutting emissions and use carbon removals only for what is left, the so-called residual emissions.
Examples
The group aims to reach net zero across its whole value chain by 2050.
Our net-zero target was validated by the Science Based Targets initiative.
Usage note
Write 'net-zero' with a hyphen before a noun (a net-zero target) and without one elsewhere (we will reach net zero).
Common phrases
reach net zero · net-zero target · net-zero pathway · net zero by 2050 · residual emissions
Describing an organization, product or event whose net carbon emissions over a period are zero, usually because the emissions that remain are balanced with carbon credits.
Where you use it
Used in marketing and corporate claims: a carbon-neutral company, become carbon neutral, carbon-neutral delivery. The noun is carbon neutrality. Regulators now examine such claims closely, and some EU consumer rules restrict claims that rely only on offsets. Hyphenate it before a noun.
Examples
The organizers say the conference was carbon neutral, using renewable power and certified carbon credits.
The company plans to become carbon neutral in its own operations by 2030.
Usage note
Carbon neutral and net zero are not the same in most standards: net zero requires deep emission cuts first, while carbon neutral claims have often relied mainly on buying offsets.
Common phrases
become carbon neutral · carbon-neutral company · carbon neutrality · carbon-neutral by 2030
The process of reducing the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions of an economy, sector or company, for example by switching to clean energy and electrifying processes.
Where you use it
Common in strategy papers and industry: decarbonization pathway, decarbonization roadmap, industrial decarbonization. The verb is decarbonize: decarbonize the power sector. Steel and cement are called hard-to-abate sectors. The British spelling is decarbonisation.
Examples
Our decarbonization roadmap focuses first on electrifying the furnaces.
Steel and cement are among the hardest sectors for decarbonization.
A reduction or removal of emissions somewhere else, such as in a forestry or clean cookstove project, that an organization pays for to compensate for its own emissions.
Where you use it
Used as a noun (buy carbon offsets) and as a verb (offset emissions). Offsets are usually bought as carbon credits from projects certified under standards such as Verra or Gold Standard. Because some projects have been criticized, buyers check additionality and permanence.
Examples
We cut our emissions as far as possible and use carbon offsets only for the rest.
The airline lets passengers buy a carbon offset for their flight.
A strong greenhouse gas (CH4) released by livestock, rice fields, landfills, coal mines and oil and gas operations. It traps much more heat than CO2 but stays in the air for only about 12 years.
Where you use it
Over 20 years it is about 80 times as powerful as CO2, so cutting methane is seen as the fastest way to slow warming in the near term. Common phrases: methane emissions, methane leaks, methane abatement, the Global Methane Pledge. Natural gas is mostly methane.
Examples
Satellite data showed large methane leaks from the pipeline.
Capturing methane at the landfill both cuts emissions and produces energy.
Usage note
American English usually says /ˈmeθeɪn/ (METH-ane); British English often says /ˈmiːθeɪn/ (MEE-thane).
A natural or artificial system, such as a forest, ocean, soil or wetland, that absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.
Where you use it
Used in climate science and national inventories. Forests and oceans act as major carbon sinks, but a damaged sink can become a carbon source. Related terms are carbon sequestration, carbon storage and carbon removal. In inventories, forest sinks appear under LULUCF (land use, land-use change and forestry).
Examples
Healthy peatlands are one of the most effective carbon sinks on land.
Repeated wildfires could turn the forest from a carbon sink into a carbon source.
Common phrases
natural carbon sink · act as a carbon sink · carbon sequestration · forest carbon sink · carbon removal
A value that converts an activity, such as liters of fuel burned or kilowatt-hours of electricity used, into the amount of greenhouse gas or pollutant emitted.
Where you use it
Central to carbon accounting: emissions = activity data × emission factor. Factors come from the IPCC, national inventories, government databases or supplier-specific data; an example is a grid emission factor in kg CO2e per kWh. Analysts choose, apply and update emission factors.
Examples
Which emission factor did you use for electricity from the national grid?
Using the supplier's own emission factor lowered our Scope 3 estimate by 12%.
Common phrases
apply an emission factor · grid emission factor · default emission factor · activity data · emission factor database
Short for carbon dioxide equivalent: a unit that expresses the warming effect of different greenhouse gases as the amount of CO2 that would cause the same warming.
Where you use it
Calculated with each gas's global warming potential (GWP), usually over 100 years. Emissions are reported in tonnes of CO2e (tCO2e), thousand tonnes (ktCO2e) or million tonnes (MtCO2e). Read 'C O two E' or 'carbon dioxide equivalent'; it is also written CO2eq.
Examples
The plant emitted 1.2 million tonnes of CO2e last year.
Converting all gases into CO2e lets us compare methane and refrigerant leaks on the same scale.
Common phrases
tonnes of CO2e · tCO2e · MtCO2e · global warming potential
A tradable certificate representing one tonne of CO2e that a certified project has reduced, avoided or removed from the atmosphere.
Where you use it
Credits are issued, bought, sold and retired, which means cancelled so they cannot be used again. Most are traded in the voluntary carbon market under standards such as Verra and Gold Standard; Article 6 of the Paris Agreement covers trading between countries. Buyers look at quality, additionality and permanence.
Examples
The wind farm sells carbon credits certified under the Gold Standard.
We retired 5,000 carbon credits to cover the emissions from last year's business travel.
Usage note
A carbon credit is the certificate; offsetting is the act of using credits to compensate for emissions. In practice 'credit' and 'offset' are often used as synonyms.
Energy from sources that are naturally replaced and do not run out, such as sunlight, wind, flowing water and the Earth's heat.
Where you use it
Central to climate mitigation. In environmental reports it appears as renewable energy sources, renewable electricity, share of renewables and renewable energy certificates. Companies buy renewable electricity to cut their Scope 2 emissions. Often shortened to 'renewables'.
Examples
All our factories in Türkiye now run on certified renewable energy.
Expanding renewable energy is the fastest way to cut emissions from the power sector.
Common phrases
renewable energy sources · switch to renewable energy · share of renewables · renewable energy certificate
Action to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions, or to remove these gases from the atmosphere, in order to limit climate change.
Where you use it
In climate texts it is paired with adaptation: 'mitigation and adaptation'. Common phrases: climate mitigation, mitigation measures, mitigation potential. In EIA reports, mitigation has a wider meaning: steps that reduce any negative impact of a project, such as noise barriers or dust control.
Examples
Most of the climate budget goes to mitigation, mainly renewable energy and building efficiency.
The EIA report lists mitigation measures for dust, noise and traffic during construction.
Usage note
The verb is mitigate: say 'mitigate the impact', not 'mitigate against the impact'. Mitigation makes a problem smaller; it does not remove it completely.
Changes in how people, cities, businesses and ecosystems work so that they can cope with the current and expected effects of climate change.
Where you use it
Paired with mitigation. Examples of adaptation are flood defenses, drought-resistant crops, early warning systems and cooler building design. Common phrases: climate adaptation, adaptation measures, adaptation plan, adapt to climate change. Countries prepare National Adaptation Plans (NAPs).
Examples
The city's adaptation plan includes new green spaces to reduce urban heat.
Farmers need support for adaptation, such as more efficient irrigation.
Usage note
Use 'adapt to', not 'adapt with': 'adapt to rising temperatures'.
Common phrases
climate adaptation · adaptation measures · adaptation plan · adapt to climate change · adaptation finance
Using less energy to provide the same service, such as heating, lighting or production, for example through insulation, efficient motors or LED lighting.
Where you use it
Often called the 'first fuel' in climate policy because it is usually the cheapest way to cut emissions. Common phrases: energy efficiency measures, improve energy efficiency, energy efficiency rating, energy audit. Do not confuse it with energy saving, which can also mean simply using a service less.
Examples
Energy efficiency projects cut the plant's gas use by 15% in two years.
Improving the energy efficiency of old buildings is a key part of the city's climate plan.
Common phrases
improve energy efficiency · energy efficiency measures · energy efficiency rating · energy-efficient buildings
The ability of a community, city, business or ecosystem to prepare for, cope with and recover quickly from shocks such as floods, heatwaves or droughts.
Where you use it
Very common in adaptation and risk work: climate resilience, build resilience, resilient infrastructure, community resilience. The adjective is resilient. It is often followed by 'to': resilience to floods.
Examples
The new drainage system will improve the district's resilience to flash floods.
Diversifying suppliers has increased our resilience to climate shocks.
Common phrases
climate resilience · build resilience · resilience to floods · resilient infrastructure · community resilience
Actions that protect, restore or sustainably manage ecosystems to tackle problems such as climate change, flooding or water shortages, while also benefiting people and biodiversity.
Where you use it
Usually plural and often shortened to NbS. Examples are restoring wetlands to reduce floods, planting mangroves to protect coasts, green roofs and urban parks to cool cities, and protecting forests to store carbon. They are often contrasted with grey infrastructure such as concrete walls and pipes.
Examples
The city chose nature-based solutions, such as restoring the floodplain, instead of building higher walls.
Nature-based solutions can deliver both climate adaptation and biodiversity benefits.
Money from public, private and international sources that pays for reducing emissions and for adapting to the impacts of climate change, especially in developing countries.
Where you use it
A central topic at COP negotiations. Developed countries have committed to provide and mobilize climate finance for developing countries; sources include the Green Climate Fund, multilateral development banks and private investors. Instruments include grants, concessional loans and green bonds.
Examples
Access to climate finance is a major challenge for small municipalities.
The project received climate finance from a development bank in the form of a low-interest loan.
Common phrases
mobilize climate finance · access to climate finance · Green Climate Fund · green bonds · adaptation finance
The idea that the shift to a low-carbon economy should be fair, protecting workers, communities and regions that depend on fossil fuel industries and sharing the benefits widely.
Where you use it
Used by governments, trade unions and development banks, and mentioned in the preamble of the Paris Agreement. Typical measures are retraining for coal workers, new local investment and social protection. Common phrases: just transition plan, just transition fund, ensure a just transition.
Examples
The just transition plan includes retraining programs for 4,000 mine workers.
Unions say a just transition must guarantee decent jobs in regions affected by coal closures.
Common phrases
ensure a just transition · just transition plan · just transition fund · affected communities
The presence in air, water or soil of harmful substances, or of noise, light or heat, at levels that damage people's health, wildlife or the environment.
Where you use it
You reduce, control, prevent or monitor pollution. It combines with the medium or the source: air pollution, water pollution, plastic pollution, industrial pollution. The person or company causing it is the polluter, the harmful substance is a pollutant and the verb is pollute.
Examples
Pollution from the industrial zone has been reaching the river for years.
The new filters cut pollution from the plant by more than half.
Usage note
Pollution is uncountable: say 'a lot of pollution' or 'types of pollution', not 'pollutions'.
Common phrases
air pollution · reduce pollution · pollution control · plastic pollution · source of pollution
How clean or polluted the air is, measured by the levels of pollutants such as fine particles, nitrogen dioxide, ozone and sulfur dioxide.
Where you use it
Used by municipalities, health agencies and environmental engineers. Air quality is measured at monitoring stations, reported with an air quality index (AQI) and compared with limit values or WHO guidelines. It can be good or poor, and it improves or deteriorates.
Examples
Air quality in the city usually gets worse in winter, when many homes burn coal for heating.
The app shows real-time air quality data from more than 300 monitoring stations.
Common phrases
air quality index · poor air quality · improve air quality · air quality monitoring · air quality standards
Contamination of rivers, lakes, seas or groundwater by substances such as sewage, industrial chemicals, fertilizers, oil or plastics that harm people and aquatic life.
Where you use it
Often described by source: point source pollution (from a pipe or outfall) and diffuse pollution (from farmland or streets). Regulators set discharge limits and monitor indicators such as BOD, COD, nitrates and heavy metals. For drinking water, 'contamination' is the more usual word.
Examples
Water pollution from untreated textile wastewater has turned parts of the river red.
Farm runoff is now the biggest cause of water pollution in the basin.
Common phrases
water pollution control · prevent water pollution · point source pollution · diffuse pollution · discharge limits
The process of removing pollutants from used water from homes, businesses and industry so that it can be safely released into rivers or the sea, or reused.
Where you use it
Used by municipalities, engineers and permit authorities. A wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) has primary, secondary (biological) and sometimes tertiary or advanced treatment. Common phrases: treated effluent, sewage sludge, discharge standards. British English also says 'sewage treatment works'.
Examples
The factory built its own wastewater treatment plant to meet the new discharge limits.
Advanced wastewater treatment removes nitrogen and phosphorus before the water reaches the sea.
Usage note
Wastewater is usually one word in technical English; 'waste water' as two words appears mainly in older or British texts.
Tiny solid or liquid particles in the air, such as dust, soot and smoke. The smallest ones, PM2.5, can travel deep into the lungs and even into the bloodstream.
Where you use it
Air quality reports use PM10 (particles 10 micrometers or smaller) and PM2.5 (2.5 micrometers or smaller), read 'P M ten' and 'P M two point five'. Concentrations are given in micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) and compared with legal limits and WHO guidelines.
Examples
Particulate matter levels exceeded the daily limit on 45 days last winter.
Road dust and diesel engines are the main sources of particulate matter near the port.
Common phrases
fine particulate matter · PM2.5 concentrations · PM10 limit value · particulate emissions
Very small pieces of plastic, less than 5 millimeters long, that come from larger items breaking down, synthetic clothing, tires or products such as cosmetics.
Where you use it
Usually plural. Researchers find microplastics in seawater, soil, drinking water, food and human tissue. Primary microplastics are made small on purpose (such as microbeads); secondary microplastics form when bigger plastics break up. Even smaller pieces are called nanoplastics.
Examples
Washing synthetic clothes releases microplastics into wastewater.
The study found microplastics in every sample of sea salt it tested.
Common phrases
microplastic pollution · release microplastics · microplastics in the ocean · nanoplastics
A layer of gas high in the atmosphere, mainly 15–35 km above the Earth, that absorbs most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Where you use it
Damaged by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances, which the 1987 Montreal Protocol phased out. Common phrases: ozone depletion, the ozone hole over Antarctica, ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The layer is slowly recovering. Do not confuse it with ground-level ozone, which is an air pollutant.
Examples
Thanks to the Montreal Protocol, the ozone layer is on track to recover over the coming decades.
Old fridges may still contain gases that damage the ozone layer, so they need special handling.
Usage note
The ozone hole is not the main cause of global warming; it is a separate problem, although some ozone-depleting gases are also greenhouse gases.
A thick haze of air pollution over a city, formed from smoke, vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions and often made worse by sunlight and still weather.
Where you use it
The word comes from 'smoke' and 'fog'. Photochemical smog forms when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, creating ground-level ozone. Winter smog is linked to coal and wood burning and temperature inversions. Cities issue smog alerts and may restrict traffic.
Examples
A thick layer of smog covered the city for three days during the cold spell.
The authorities issued a smog alert and advised children to stay indoors.
Rain, snow or fog that is more acidic than normal because of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released mainly by burning fossil fuels.
Where you use it
A major issue in Europe and North America in the 1970s and 1980s, when it damaged forests, lakes and buildings. Flue gas desulfurization units (scrubbers) at power plants and cleaner fuels greatly reduced it. Scientists also speak of acid deposition, which includes dry particles.
Examples
Acid rain killed many trees in the region before the power plant installed scrubbers.
Limestone monuments in the city show damage from decades of acid rain.
The presence of harmful substances in soil, such as heavy metals, oil, solvents or pesticides, at levels that may threaten human health, groundwater or ecosystems.
Where you use it
Common at old industrial sites, fuel stations, landfills and mines. Consultants carry out a site investigation, take soil samples and assess the risk; contaminated land then undergoes remediation (clean-up). Related terms: contaminated site, brownfield, soil remediation.
Examples
The site investigation found soil contamination from leaking fuel tanks.
The soil contamination must be cleaned up before homes can be built on the old factory site.
Common phrases
contaminated land · soil remediation · site investigation · soil sampling · heavy metal contamination
A process in which too many nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers and sewage, enter a lake or sea, so algae grow rapidly and their decay uses up the oxygen in the water.
Where you use it
A technical term in water quality and EIA reports. Signs include algal blooms, murky water, fish kills and 'dead zones' with very little oxygen (hypoxia). Control measures include nutrient removal at wastewater treatment plants and reducing fertilizer runoff from farms.
Examples
Eutrophication causes algal blooms in the lake every summer.
Upgrading the treatment plants to remove phosphorus is the key to reversing eutrophication.
Common phrases
algal bloom · nutrient pollution · dead zone · reverse eutrophication · fertilizer runoff
Materials and objects that people, homes, businesses or factories throw away because they no longer need them or can no longer use them.
Where you use it
Usually uncountable: household waste, municipal waste, industrial waste, food waste, packaging waste. Waste is generated, collected, sorted, treated and disposed of. Specialists sometimes use the plural 'wastes' for different types. As a verb, waste means to use something badly: waste energy, waste water resources.
Examples
The factory generates about 40 tonnes of waste a month, most of it packaging.
All waste must be sorted at source before collection.
Usage note
In Turkish 'çöp' is everyday and 'atık' is technical. In English, 'garbage' (US) and 'rubbish' (UK) are everyday words; in reports and regulations use 'waste'.
The process of collecting used materials such as paper, glass, metal and plastic and turning them into raw materials or new products.
Where you use it
Used for the activity and the system: recycling rate, recycling bin, recycling facility, recycling target. The verb is recycle and the result is recycled material or recycled content. In the waste hierarchy, recycling comes after reducing and reusing.
Examples
The municipality wants to raise the recycling rate for packaging to 60% within five years.
Recycling one tonne of aluminum uses far less energy than producing it from ore.
Common phrases
recycling rate · recycling facility · recycled content · recycling bin · separate collection
A site where waste is buried in the ground in a controlled way, usually with a lining and systems to collect leachate and landfill gas.
Where you use it
Used as a noun (a landfill, send waste to landfill) and before other nouns (landfill gas, landfill tax, landfill site). Diverting waste from landfill is a key goal of waste policy, because landfills take up land and produce methane. An uncontrolled site is called an open dump.
Examples
About 70% of the city's municipal waste still goes to landfill.
The landfill captures its gas and uses it to generate electricity.
Usage note
In British English the article is often dropped: 'sent to landfill'. American English also says 'a landfill' for the site itself.
Common phrases
send to landfill · landfill site · landfill gas · divert waste from landfill · landfill tax
Waste that can harm people or the environment because it is toxic, flammable, corrosive or reactive, such as used oils, solvents, batteries and medical waste.
Where you use it
Strictly regulated: hazardous waste must be labeled, stored separately, moved by licensed carriers and sent to licensed facilities. Waste lists give each type a code; in the EU list, codes marked with an asterisk are hazardous. International shipments are controlled by the Basel Convention.
Examples
Paint residues and used solvents are stored as hazardous waste until the licensed contractor collects them.
The audit found hazardous waste mixed with general waste in two containers.
To get rid of something, especially waste, by throwing it away, burning it or burying it in a controlled and legal way.
Where you use it
Common in waste permits, safety data sheets and procedures: dispose of waste safely, dispose of batteries properly. The noun is disposal: waste disposal, disposal site, safe disposal. In waste law, disposal (such as landfill, or incineration without energy recovery) is the last option, below recovery.
Examples
Used oil must be disposed of through a licensed collector.
How do you dispose of the sludge from the treatment plant?
Usage note
Do not forget 'of': 'dispose of the waste', not 'dispose the waste'. It stays in the passive: 'The waste was disposed of.'
Common phrases
dispose of waste · dispose of safely · waste disposal · disposal site · properly disposed of
Able to be broken down naturally by bacteria, fungi and other living things into water, carbon dioxide and natural materials.
Where you use it
Used on packaging, in product specifications and in waste policy: biodegradable plastic, biodegradable packaging. Specialists ask under what conditions and how quickly a material breaks down. 'Compostable' is stricter: the material must break down in a composting process within a set time.
Examples
Biodegradable does not mean the bag will disappear quickly in the sea.
We replaced the plastic film with a biodegradable alternative made from plant starch.
Usage note
Biodegradable, compostable and recyclable are different claims; on product labels each one needs its own proof.
Plastic items designed to be used once and then thrown away, such as bags, straws, cups, cutlery and much of today's packaging.
Where you use it
A key target of waste policy. Governments ban, restrict or charge for single-use plastics; the EU Single-Use Plastics Directive bans items such as plastic cutlery and straws. Also used as an adjective: single-use plastic bags, single-use packaging. The alternatives are reusable or refillable products.
Examples
The festival banned single-use plastic cups and introduced a deposit on reusable ones.
Single-use plastic makes up most of the litter found on the beach.
The collection, transport, sorting, treatment, recycling and disposal of waste, together with the planning and monitoring of these activities.
Where you use it
Used by municipalities, factories and consultants: waste management plan, waste management company, waste management facility. Companies track waste data by type and by route, such as recycling, recovery or landfill. Good waste management follows the waste hierarchy.
Examples
We hired a licensed company to handle waste management at all three sites.
The new waste management plan aims to halve the amount we send to landfill.
Common phrases
waste management plan · integrated waste management · waste management facility · waste management company
An order of priority for dealing with waste: first prevent it, then reuse, recycle and recover energy, and only as a last option dispose of it.
Where you use it
Set out in the EU Waste Framework Directive and used in waste plans and audits. It is often drawn as an upside-down pyramid, and professionals say an option is 'higher up' or 'lower down' the waste hierarchy. The simple version for the public is 'reduce, reuse, recycle'.
Examples
Composting food waste is higher up the waste hierarchy than burning it.
Following the waste hierarchy, we first redesigned the packaging to use less material.
Common phrases
follow the waste hierarchy · higher up the waste hierarchy · waste prevention · reduce, reuse, recycle
The controlled natural breakdown of organic waste, such as food scraps, garden waste and some paper, into a dark, nutrient-rich material that is used to improve soil.
Where you use it
Used for home, community and industrial scales. The product is compost, and the verb is also compost. Industrial composting uses higher temperatures and can handle certified compostable packaging. Anaerobic digestion, which produces biogas, is another way to treat organic waste.
Examples
The hotel started composting its kitchen waste and uses the compost in its gardens.
Industrial composting is needed to break down these cups within 12 weeks.
Discarded electrical and electronic equipment, such as phones, computers, TVs, fridges and cables, which contains valuable metals as well as hazardous materials.
Where you use it
Short for electronic waste; regulations also use WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment). E-waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams, and only a small share is formally collected and recycled. Proper recycling recovers gold, copper and rare metals and prevents pollution.
Examples
Old laptops are collected as e-waste and sent to a licensed recycler.
Informal e-waste recycling exposes workers to lead and mercury.
The variety of all living things in a place, including the different species of plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes within them and the ecosystems they form.
Where you use it
Common in science, policy and corporate reports. Biodiversity is protected, conserved, restored or lost; people talk about biodiversity loss, biodiversity hotspots and biodiversity net gain. The 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework sets the main international targets.
Examples
Wetlands support high biodiversity, especially birds and fish.
The project's main impact on biodiversity will come from clearing 12 hectares of forest.
Common phrases
biodiversity loss · protect biodiversity · rich biodiversity · biodiversity hotspot · biodiversity net gain
A community of living things together with their physical environment, such as soil, water and climate, all interacting as one system, for example a forest, lake or coral reef.
Where you use it
Used by ecologists, planners and in EIA reports: marine, freshwater, forest or coastal ecosystems. Ecosystems can be healthy, fragile, degraded or restored. In business English 'ecosystem' also means a network of companies or products, so context matters.
Examples
Untreated wastewater has seriously damaged the lake ecosystem.
Seagrass meadows are among the most productive coastal ecosystems in the Mediterranean.
Common phrases
marine ecosystem · fragile ecosystem · ecosystem restoration · damage an ecosystem · ecosystem health
The natural home of a plant or animal species: the place that gives it the food, water, shelter and conditions it needs to survive and reproduce.
Where you use it
A key word in conservation and EIA work. Habitats are lost, destroyed, fragmented, protected or restored. Common phrases: habitat loss, habitat destruction, natural habitat, critical habitat, habitat restoration. Habitat loss is one of the main drivers of biodiversity decline.
Examples
The new road would cut through the habitat of a protected tortoise species.
Habitat loss from farming and urban growth is the main threat to the species.
The permanent clearing of forests so that the land can be used for something else, such as farming, grazing, mining or building.
Where you use it
Used in climate, biodiversity and supply chain contexts. Deforestation releases stored carbon and destroys habitats. Companies that source soy, palm oil, cattle, cocoa, coffee, rubber or wood face deforestation-free requirements, for example under the EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR).
Examples
Deforestation in the tropics is a major source of global carbon emissions.
Our suppliers must prove that their cocoa is not linked to deforestation.
Usage note
Deforestation means the forest is lost for good. Harvesting trees that are replanted as part of forest management is usually called logging, not deforestation.
Common phrases
tropical deforestation · deforestation-free · halt deforestation · drivers of deforestation · rate of deforestation
A type of plant or animal that is at high risk of disappearing from the wild, usually because of habitat loss, hunting, pollution or climate change.
Where you use it
Used in conservation, law and EIA work. In the IUCN Red List, 'Endangered' is one specific category, between Vulnerable and Critically Endangered, but in everyday English 'endangered species' means any species under threat. Species can be listed, protected and, with effort, recover.
Examples
The survey recorded two endangered species near the proposed wind farm.
Fishing nets are one of the main threats to this endangered species.
Usage note
Species has the same form in the singular and plural: one species, two species. 'Specie' is a different word that means coins.
Common phrases
protect endangered species · critically endangered · IUCN Red List · trade in endangered species
The protection and careful management of nature, including species, habitats, landscapes and natural resources, so that they are not damaged or lost.
Where you use it
Used by NGOs, park authorities and scientists: nature conservation, wildlife conservation, conservation area, conservation status, conservation efforts. A person who works in this area is a conservationist. It is also used for saving resources: energy conservation, water conservation.
Examples
Local fishers are now part of the conservation program for the bay.
The species' conservation status improved after its numbers recovered.
Usage note
Do not confuse conservation (protecting nature) with conversation (talking). The verb is conserve: conserve water, conserve habitats.
Common phrases
nature conservation · conservation efforts · conservation status · wildlife conservation · water conservation
A clearly defined area of land or sea, such as a national park or marine reserve, that is managed under law to conserve nature over the long term.
Where you use it
Used in conservation policy and planning. Examples include national parks, nature reserves, wetlands of international importance (Ramsar sites) and marine protected areas (MPAs). The global '30x30' target aims to protect 30% of land and sea by 2030.
Examples
Any construction inside the protected area needs special permission.
The ministry is considering three new marine protected areas along the coast.
Common phrases
marine protected area · designate a protected area · protected area network · inside the protected area
A plant, animal or other organism that people have moved to a new area, where it spreads quickly and harms native species, ecosystems or the economy.
Where you use it
Also called invasive alien species. Common phrases: introduce, spread, control or eradicate invasive species. They arrive through ships' ballast water, trade, gardening or canals. The opposite of an invasive or alien species is a native species.
Examples
Lionfish are an invasive species in the eastern Mediterranean and compete with native fish for food.
Ships must treat their ballast water to stop the spread of invasive species.
Common phrases
invasive alien species · control invasive species · spread of invasive species · native species
The complete disappearance of a species, when its last individual dies. A species can also be extinct in the wild but still survive in zoos or botanical gardens.
Where you use it
Common phrases: face extinction, be at risk of extinction, be driven to extinction, save from extinction, extinction rate. The adjective is extinct: an extinct species. Scientists warn that current extinction rates are far higher than the natural background rate.
Examples
Without urgent action, the frog could face extinction within a decade.
A captive breeding program saved the bird from extinction.
Common phrases
face extinction · risk of extinction · driven to extinction · mass extinction · extinction rate
The benefits people get from nature, such as clean water, pollination of crops, flood protection, climate regulation, food, timber and places for recreation.
Where you use it
Used in environmental economics, planning and corporate nature reporting. Ecosystem services are often grouped as provisioning (food, water), regulating (flood control, pollination), cultural (recreation) and supporting (soil formation). Some programs pay landowners for ecosystem services (PES).
Examples
The wetland provides valuable ecosystem services, including flood control and water purification.
The study put a monetary value on the ecosystem services of the city's forests.
Common phrases
provide ecosystem services · value ecosystem services · payments for ecosystem services · regulating services
Planting trees, or helping forests grow back naturally, on land where forest was recently cut down, burned or otherwise lost.
Where you use it
Used in forestry, climate and carbon projects. Afforestation means planting trees on land that has not been forest for a long time. Good projects choose native species, involve local communities and protect the trees for decades. Related: forest restoration, natural regeneration, tree planting.
Examples
Reforestation of the burned area began two years after the fire.
The company funds reforestation with native oak and pine species.
Meeting today's needs in a way that does not harm the environment, society or the economy for future generations. In companies it also means managing environmental and social impacts.
Where you use it
A very broad term used in companies, universities and government. Firms have sustainability teams, sustainability managers, sustainability strategies and sustainability reports. The adjective is sustainable: sustainable products, sustainable finance. Because the word is so wide, good writers say exactly what they mean.
Examples
She joined the company as head of sustainability two years ago.
Our customers increasingly ask about the sustainability of our supply chain.
Common phrases
sustainability strategy · head of sustainability · commitment to sustainability · environmental sustainability · sustainability goals
Economic and social progress that meets the needs of people today while protecting the environment and natural resources that future generations will also need.
Where you use it
A policy term made popular by the Brundtland Report, published for the UN in 1987. It appears in national development plans, UN documents and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It is usually described as balancing three pillars: economic, social and environmental.
Examples
The regional plan aims to combine tourism growth with sustainable development.
Clean water and sanitation are central to sustainable development in rural areas.
Usage note
Here 'development' means economic and social progress (kalkınma), not personal growth or software development.
Common phrases
promote sustainable development · pillars of sustainable development · sustainable development strategy · UN 2030 Agenda
An economic model that keeps products and materials in use for as long as possible through reuse, repair, remanufacturing and recycling, instead of making, using and throwing away.
Where you use it
Contrasted with the linear economy ('take, make, dispose'). Common in EU policy, product design and waste management: circular economy action plan, circular business models, circular design. People also say 'circularity' and describe products as circular.
Examples
Under our circular economy strategy, returned phones are repaired and sold again.
Moving to a circular economy would reduce the demand for raw materials.
Common phrases
transition to a circular economy · circular economy action plan · circular business model · circular design · circularity
Describing products, services or activities that cause little or no harm to the environment, for example because they use less energy or create less waste.
Where you use it
Common in marketing and everyday speech; synonyms are eco-friendly and green. Because 'environmentally' ends in -ly, no hyphen is needed before a noun: environmentally friendly products. The phrase is vague, so regulators now expect companies to back such claims with specific evidence.
Examples
The hotel switched to environmentally friendly cleaning products.
Saying a product is environmentally friendly is not enough; you need data to support the claim.
Common phrases
environmentally friendly products · eco-friendly packaging · more environmentally friendly · environmentally friendly alternative
A method for measuring the environmental impacts of a product or service at every stage of its life, from raw materials and production to use and disposal.
Where you use it
Carried out according to ISO 14040 and 14044. Analysts define the system boundary, such as cradle to gate (up to the factory gate) or cradle to grave (including use and disposal). An LCA is the basis for product carbon footprints and Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs).
Examples
The life cycle assessment showed that most of the bottle's impact comes from producing the glass.
We need a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment before we make any claims about the new material.
Common phrases
carry out a life cycle assessment · cradle to grave · cradle to gate · system boundary · Environmental Product Declaration
Seventeen global goals adopted by all UN member states in 2015, covering issues such as poverty, health, education, clean water, energy, climate and nature, to be met by 2030.
Where you use it
Usually called the SDGs. Each goal has a number: SDG 6 is clean water and sanitation, SDG 13 is climate action, SDG 14 is life below water and SDG 15 is life on land. Companies map or align their activities to the SDGs and contribute to specific targets.
Examples
Our water projects contribute to Sustainable Development Goal 6 on clean water and sanitation.
The report shows how each business unit supports the Sustainable Development Goals.
Common phrases
contribute to the SDGs · align with the SDGs · SDG 13 · 2030 Agenda
Using less raw material, water and energy to make the same product or deliver the same service, while creating less waste and pollution.
Where you use it
Used in industry, EU policy and circular economy work. Companies run resource efficiency programs, measure material and water intensity (use per unit of product) and look for savings. Cleaner production and industrial symbiosis, where one firm's waste becomes another firm's input, are related ideas.
Examples
The resource efficiency study found that we could reuse 30% of our process water.
Improving resource efficiency cut both our costs and our waste.
Common phrases
improve resource efficiency · resource efficiency program · cleaner production · industrial symbiosis · water intensity
The total volume of fresh water used to produce a product, or used by a person, company or country, including the water used along the whole supply chain.
Where you use it
Divided into blue water (surface and groundwater), green water (rainwater stored in soil) and grey water (water needed to dilute pollution). Used in agriculture, food, textiles and corporate water reporting. Methods include the Water Footprint Network approach and ISO 14046.
Examples
Cotton has a large water footprint, especially when it is irrigated in dry regions.
We calculated the water footprint of our jeans from the cotton field to the store.
Common phrases
reduce the water footprint · blue water · green water · grey water · water stress
The international climate treaty adopted in 2015 under the UN climate convention, in which countries agreed to keep global warming well below 2°C and to try to limit it to 1.5°C.
Where you use it
Always capitalized and used with 'the'. Countries sign, ratify, join or withdraw from the Paris Agreement and submit national climate plans called NDCs under it. Common phrases: the Paris goals, Paris-aligned, in line with the Paris Agreement. Adopted at COP21, it entered into force in 2016.
Examples
The bank says all its new lending will be aligned with the Paris Agreement.
Under the Paris Agreement, countries submit new climate targets every five years.
Common phrases
ratify the Paris Agreement · Paris-aligned · goals of the Paris Agreement · in line with the Paris Agreement
An official authorization that allows a facility to carry out activities that could affect the environment, such as emissions to air or discharges to water, under set conditions.
Where you use it
Facilities apply for, obtain, hold and renew an environmental permit and must comply with its conditions, such as emission limit values and monitoring duties. Breaching permit conditions can lead to fines or suspension. Large EU installations need an integrated permit under the Industrial Emissions Directive.
Examples
We cannot increase production until the environmental permit is amended.
The inspector checked whether the site was meeting all the conditions of its environmental permit.
Common phrases
apply for an environmental permit · permit conditions · comply with the permit · emission limit values · renew a permit
The idea that whoever causes pollution should pay the costs of preventing it, cleaning it up and repairing the damage, instead of the public paying.
Where you use it
A basic principle of environmental law in the EU, the OECD and many countries, including Türkiye. It is the logic behind pollution charges, carbon pricing and extended producer responsibility. Usually used with 'the' and sometimes written 'polluter-pays principle'.
Examples
Under the polluter pays principle, the company had to cover the full cost of cleaning up the river.
Carbon pricing applies the polluter pays principle to greenhouse gas emissions.
Common phrases
apply the polluter pays principle · under the polluter pays principle · polluter-pays approach
Policies that put a price on greenhouse gas emissions, mainly through carbon taxes or emissions trading systems, so that polluters pay and cleaner options become more attractive.
Where you use it
An umbrella term in economics and climate policy. Governments introduce carbon pricing; companies face a carbon price, usually quoted in euros or dollars per tonne of CO2. Many companies also use an internal carbon price to test investment decisions.
Examples
Many economists see carbon pricing as one of the most cost-effective ways to cut emissions.
Internal carbon pricing at $100 per tonne helps us compare new projects.
A market-based scheme that sets a cap on total emissions and lets companies buy and sell allowances, each giving the right to emit one tonne of CO2 or its equivalent.
Where you use it
Also called cap and trade. Installations must monitor, report and verify (MRV) their emissions and surrender enough allowances each year. Allowances are given out for free or auctioned. The EU ETS, launched in 2005, is the best-known example; people often just say 'the ETS'.
Examples
Our cement plant falls under the emissions trading system, so we must surrender allowances every year.
Prices in the emissions trading system rose after the cap was tightened.
Usage note
An ETS allowance is a permit to emit; it is not the same as a carbon credit, which certifies a reduction or removal achieved by a project.
Common phrases
EU ETS · cap and trade · emission allowances · surrender allowances · free allocation
A tax charged on fossil fuels or on greenhouse gas emissions, usually set as a fixed amount per tonne of CO2, to make polluting activities more expensive.
Where you use it
Compared with an ETS, a carbon tax gives a predictable price but not a fixed limit on emissions. Governments introduce, levy, raise or phase in a carbon tax; the revenue may be returned to households or used for green investment. Sweden's carbon tax, introduced in 1991, is a well-known early example.
Examples
The carbon tax added about 10 cents to the price of a liter of diesel.
Economists debated whether the carbon tax revenue should go back to households.
Common phrases
introduce a carbon tax · carbon tax rate · carbon tax revenue · levy a carbon tax
An EU measure that puts a carbon price on certain imports, such as steel, cement, aluminum and fertilizers, based on the emissions released when they were produced.
Where you use it
Usually called CBAM, pronounced 'see-bam'. It aims to prevent carbon leakage and follows the EU ETS price. EU importers report the embedded emissions of covered goods and, after a reporting-only transitional phase (2023–2025), pay through CBAM certificates. Exporters must give verified emissions data to EU buyers.
Examples
Because of the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, our EU customers now ask for the emissions data of every steel shipment.
Under the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, goods made with lower emissions face a lower carbon cost at the EU border.
A country's national climate plan under the Paris Agreement, setting out its targets for cutting emissions and its actions for adapting to climate change.
Where you use it
Usually called by its abbreviation, NDC; the plural is NDCs. Countries submit, update or strengthen their NDCs every five years. Targets may be absolute cuts from a base year or reductions compared with a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario.
Examples
The country's new nationally determined contribution sets a stronger emissions target for 2035.
Every nationally determined contribution is published in the UN's online NDC registry.
Short for Conference of the Parties: the yearly UN climate summit where the countries that signed the UN climate convention negotiate and review global climate action.
Where you use it
Pronounced as one word, like 'cop', and followed by a number: COP21 (Paris, 2015), COP28 (Dubai, 2023). Countries host, attend and negotiate at COP, and the outcomes are called decisions. Other conventions, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, also hold their own COPs.
Examples
At COP28, countries agreed on the need to transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems.
To stop using, producing or allowing something gradually, step by step over a planned period, for example coal power or harmful chemicals.
Where you use it
Common in policy texts and negotiations: phase out coal, phase out HFCs, phase out petrol and diesel cars. The noun is written with a hyphen: a coal phase-out, a phase-out date. Negotiators distinguish phase out (end completely) from phase down (reduce).
Examples
The country plans to phase out coal power by 2035.
Single-use plastic cutlery was phased out across our cafeterias last year.
Common phrases
phase out coal · phase-out date · gradually phase out · phase down
A policy approach that makes producers responsible, financially and sometimes physically, for collecting and recycling their products and packaging after use.
Where you use it
Applied to packaging, electronics, batteries, tires and textiles. Producers usually join a producer responsibility organization (PRO) and pay fees based on the amount and type of material they place on the market. EPR schemes put the polluter pays principle into practice.
Examples
Under extended producer responsibility, we pay a fee for every tonne of packaging we put on the market.
The new extended producer responsibility scheme for textiles will fund clothing collection points.
Common phrases
EPR scheme · EPR fees · producer responsibility organization · place on the market
The EU's main policy package, launched in 2019, that aims to make Europe climate-neutral by 2050 and to cut net emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared with 1990.
Where you use it
Often shortened to 'the Green Deal'. It includes the 'Fit for 55' package, a stronger EU ETS, CBAM, the circular economy action plan and new biodiversity rules. Exporters to the EU follow it closely because it changes product, reporting and carbon requirements.
Examples
Many Turkish exporters are adapting their production to the requirements of the European Green Deal.
The European Green Deal set the goal of climate neutrality by 2050.
Common phrases
under the European Green Deal · Fit for 55 · climate neutrality · Green Deal Action Plan
A formal study of the likely effects of a planned project, such as a mine, motorway or power plant, on the environment and local people before a decision is made to approve it.
Where you use it
Required by law for many projects. Consultants carry out or prepare the EIA; the authority reviews it and issues a decision. Key parts are the baseline study, impact prediction, mitigation measures and public consultation. In the US the main document is called an environmental impact statement (EIS).
Examples
The environmental impact assessment for the quarry must include a full noise and dust study.
Construction cannot start until the environmental impact assessment has been approved.
Common phrases
carry out an EIA · EIA report · EIA process · EIA approval · scoping stage
A structured set of policies, procedures and records that an organization uses to manage its environmental impacts, meet its legal duties and improve its performance.
Where you use it
The best-known standard is ISO 14001; the EU also has EMAS. An EMS follows the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle and includes an environmental policy, a register of environmental aspects, a legal register, objectives, internal audits and management review. Companies implement, certify and maintain an EMS.
Examples
Our environmental management system has been certified to ISO 14001 since 2015.
The external auditor found two minor nonconformities in the environmental management system.
Common phrases
implement an EMS · ISO 14001 certification · internal audit · management review · environmental aspects
The regular measurement and recording of environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, noise or wildlife, to check compliance and detect changes over time.
Where you use it
Required by environmental permits and EIA decisions. Facilities carry out continuous monitoring, for example with a continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS) on a stack, or periodic sampling, and submit monitoring reports to the authority. Results are compared with limit values and with the baseline.
Examples
Environmental monitoring around the mine includes monthly groundwater sampling.
The environmental monitoring data showed noise levels above the night-time limit.
Common phrases
environmental monitoring program · continuous monitoring · monitoring report · sampling points · monitoring data
The starting conditions or measurements against which later changes are compared, such as the state of the environment before a project or a company's emissions in a base year.
Where you use it
In EIA work a baseline study or baseline survey records air, water, soil, noise, flora and fauna before construction. In climate reporting the baseline is often a base year: targets are set 'against a 2019 baseline'. Common verbs: establish, set, measure against a baseline.
Examples
The baseline survey recorded 43 bird species in the project area.
We aim to cut emissions by 50% against a 2019 baseline.
Common phrases
baseline study · baseline survey · establish a baseline · against a baseline · base year
A systematic check of how well a facility or organization complies with environmental laws, permits and its own management system, and of how it manages its impacts.
Where you use it
Audits may be internal, external (by a certification body) or carried out by regulators as inspections. Auditors review documents, inspect the site, interview staff and report findings such as nonconformities and observations. Buyers also order environmental due diligence before they acquire a site.
Examples
The environmental audit found that the chemical store had no secondary containment.
We schedule an internal environmental audit at each site twice a year.
Common phrases
carry out an environmental audit · audit findings · internal audit · nonconformity · environmental due diligence
A formal process in which authorities or project developers share their plans with local people and other stakeholders and collect their views before a decision is taken.
Where you use it
A required step in most EIA procedures and in drafting new laws. Authorities launch or hold a public consultation, and people submit comments or objections within the consultation period. Related terms: stakeholder engagement, public hearing, public participation meeting.
Examples
Around 300 residents attended the public consultation on the new landfill.
The draft regulation is open for public consultation until the end of March.
Common phrases
hold a public consultation · consultation period · stakeholder engagement · submit comments · public participation
Short for environmental, social and governance: the three groups of non-financial factors that investors and lenders use to judge a company's risks, impacts and quality of management.
Where you use it
Very common in finance and corporate reporting: ESG report, ESG rating, ESG data, ESG criteria, ESG investing. Read letter by letter. The E covers emissions, energy, water, waste and biodiversity; the S covers people and communities; the G covers the board, ethics and controls.
Examples
Several investors asked about our ESG performance during the roadshow.
The bank now applies ESG criteria to every loan above €10 million.
The three categories used to report a company's greenhouse gases: Scope 1 from sources it owns, Scope 2 from the energy it buys, and Scope 3 from the rest of its value chain.
Where you use it
Defined by the GHG Protocol and used in every corporate climate report. People say 'our Scope 1 and 2 emissions' or just 'Scope 3'. Scope 3 is usually the largest and hardest to measure, because it includes suppliers, transport, the use of sold products and their end of life.
Examples
Our Scope 1 and 2 emissions fell by 18%, but Scope 3 emissions from suppliers kept rising.
Customers now ask us to report Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions for every product line.
A report, usually published every year, in which a company describes its environmental, social and governance performance, targets and impacts.
Where you use it
Companies publish or issue a sustainability report, often following the GRI Standards, the ISSB standards or the EU's ESRS. Other names are ESG report, corporate responsibility report and, when combined with financial results, integrated report. Many reports now receive external assurance.
Examples
Our sustainability report follows the GRI Standards and has been externally assured.
The energy costs in the sustainability report must match the figures in our financial statements.
The possibility that climate change, or the policies and market changes it brings, will cause financial losses or other harm to a company, investor, community or asset.
Where you use it
Finance and reporting divide it into physical risks (floods, heat, drought, storms) and transition risks (new regulation, carbon prices, changing demand, new technology). Companies assess, manage and disclose climate-related risks and use scenario analysis to test their strategy.
Examples
The board reviews climate risk as part of its annual risk assessment.
Our scenario analysis shows that our main climate risk is a rising carbon price.
A structured account of all the greenhouse gases that a country, city or company emits and removes in a given year, broken down by source and by gas.
Where you use it
Companies compile a GHG inventory using the GHG Protocol or ISO 14064-1 and often have it verified by a third party. Countries submit national inventories to the UN every year. Key elements are the organizational boundary, the base year, activity data and emission factors.
Examples
Our greenhouse gas inventory covers all 14 production sites and the head office.
The verifier found errors in the activity data used for the greenhouse gas inventory.
Common phrases
prepare a GHG inventory · national inventory report · base year · activity data · third-party verification
Making misleading claims that a company, product or investment is better for the environment than it really is, for example through vague labels or selective data.
Where you use it
A critical word used by journalists, NGOs, regulators and lawyers. Companies are accused of greenwashing, and regulators crack down on it. Warning signs include vague words like 'eco' or 'green', hidden trade-offs and claims based only on offsets. A related term is greenhushing: staying silent about climate goals to avoid criticism.
Examples
The airline was accused of greenwashing after calling its flights 'carbon neutral'.
To avoid greenwashing, every claim in the campaign must be backed by verified data.
Common phrases
accused of greenwashing · avoid greenwashing · greenwashing claims · crack down on greenwashing · greenhushing
In sustainability reporting, the principle and process of deciding which environmental, social and governance topics are important enough to a company and its stakeholders to report on.
Where you use it
Companies carry out a materiality assessment and often show the results in a materiality matrix. Financial materiality looks at how a topic affects the company's value; impact materiality looks at the company's effect on people and the planet. The EU's CSRD requires both, called double materiality.
Examples
Water scarcity came out as a top issue in our materiality assessment.
Under double materiality, we must report both the climate risks to our business and our own impact on the climate.
The act of making information public, especially the data, risks and targets that companies must or choose to report to investors, regulators and the public.
Where you use it
Common in ESG work: climate-related disclosures, mandatory disclosure, disclosure requirements. Key frameworks are the ISSB's IFRS S1 and S2, which build on the former TCFD recommendations, and the EU's ESRS. CDP runs a widely used environmental disclosure system. The verb is disclose.
Examples
Investors want more detailed disclosure of how we will meet our 2030 target.
Our first climate-related disclosure under IFRS S2 will cover the 2025 financial year.
Ten questions from this glossary. Pick the right meaning for each term and see your score.
How to learn environment & climate vocabulary
Read real texts from the field: IPCC summaries for policymakers, environmental impact assessment reports, company sustainability reports, EU regulations and environmental news use this vocabulary in its natural context.
Learn the verbs that go with each noun, not just the nouns: emissions are cut, reduced or offset; waste is collected, sorted and disposed of; habitats are protected or restored; targets are set, met or missed; risks are assessed and disclosed.
Watch countable and uncountable nouns. Pollution, waste, biodiversity and recycling are usually uncountable, while emissions is almost always plural: say 'a lot of waste', not 'a lot of wastes', and 'cut emissions', not 'cut emission'.
Practice reading numbers, units and formulas aloud: 'one point five degrees Celsius', 'four hundred and twenty parts per million', 'tonnes of CO2 equivalent', 'PM two point five'. English uses a decimal point and a comma for thousands, the opposite of Turkish.
Match English terms with the Turkish names and abbreviations you already use, such as ÇED (environmental impact assessment, EIA), sera gazı (greenhouse gas), SKDM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, CBAM) and Sıfır Atık (zero waste), so you can explain local rules to foreign colleagues.
Frequently asked questions
How can I learn English for environmental and climate work?
Read real texts from the field and notice how the words are used: IPCC summaries, environmental impact assessment reports, sustainability and ESG reports, EU regulations and environmental news. Learn each term with its usual partners (cut emissions, carry out an EIA, dispose of waste, disclose climate risks) and use new words right away in your own emails, reports and meetings.
Which environment and climate terms should I learn first?
Start with the words you meet every day: climate change, global warming, greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, emissions, carbon footprint, net zero, pollution, air quality, waste, recycling, biodiversity, ecosystem, sustainability, mitigation, adaptation, environmental impact assessment and ESG. Then move on to policy, reporting and the technical vocabulary of each area. The terms in this glossary follow the same order, from most to least essential.
What is the difference between climate change and global warming?
Global warming is the rise in the Earth's average surface temperature, mainly caused by greenhouse gases from human activities. Climate change is the wider term: it includes global warming and all its effects, such as changing rainfall, more extreme weather, droughts and sea level rise. Scientists and official documents usually prefer climate change, while global warming is used when the temperature itself is the point.
What is the difference between net zero and carbon neutral?
Both describe a balance between emissions released and emissions removed or compensated. Under leading standards, net zero means cutting emissions deeply across the whole value chain, usually by 90% or more, and removing only the small amount that remains. Carbon neutral claims have often been reached mainly by buying carbon credits, so they are now checked more strictly by regulators. In reports, always explain what your claim covers.
How do I say ÇED and 'ÇED olumlu' in English?
ÇED is an environmental impact assessment (EIA), and the ÇED raporu is the EIA report; in the United States the main document is called an environmental impact statement (EIS). A 'ÇED olumlu' decision can be translated as a positive EIA decision or EIA approval, and 'ÇED gerekli değildir' as a decision that an EIA is not required. Foreign readers do not know the Turkish abbreviation, so write the English term in full the first time.
