English for theology and religious studies students
Religious Studies & Theology Vocabulary: 100 Key English Terms
Much of today's research on religion, from journal articles and encyclopedias to international conferences, is written in English, and students of theology increasingly read primary sources and scholarship in English translation. This glossary collects the terms theology and religious studies students meet first, from scripture, doctrine and ritual to the vocabulary of Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism and other traditions, all described in the neutral, descriptive style of academic writing. Each entry gives Turkish equivalents, examples from lectures, papers and fieldwork, and notes on the spelling, capitalization and translation traps that often confuse Turkish speakers.
100 terms
10 topics
48 core terms
200 example sentences
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No account needed. Read the meaning, see where the term is used, then study the examples. Click any word in the lesson for help. You can also select a word and press Alt + Enter.
Study of Religion
religion
noun
Meaning
A system of beliefs, practices, values and communities that relates people to what they regard as sacred, divine or ultimately real.
Where you use it
The central word of the field. Scholars debate how to define religion at all, so in papers you often see phrases like 'the concept of religion' or 'what counts as religion'. Countable for particular traditions (world religions), uncountable for the phenomenon in general (religion in modern society).
Examples
Durkheim and Weber offered very different answers to the question of what religion does in society.
This course compares how five major religions understand death and mourning.
Usage note
The adjective is religious, and a person who follows a religion is an adherent or a follower, not a 'religionist'.
Common phrases
world religions · organized religion · freedom of religion · practise a religion · define religion
The systematic study of God, the divine and religious belief, usually carried out from within a particular faith tradition and its sources.
Where you use it
Used for the academic subject (a degree in theology), for the thought of one tradition (Christian theology, Islamic theology) and for one thinker's system (Aquinas's theology). A specialist is a theologian; the adjective is theological.
Examples
She is writing a dissertation on the theology of al-Ghazali.
Our faculty of theology also offers courses in psychology and sociology of religion.
Usage note
Turkish İlahiyat covers more than theology in the narrow sense: it also includes exegesis, hadith, law and history. In English, a narrow 'theology' course is closer to kelam.
Common phrases
Christian theology · Islamic theology · systematic theology · faculty of theology · study theology
An academic field that studies religions from the outside, using methods from history, sociology, anthropology, psychology and philosophy, without judging which beliefs are true.
Where you use it
The usual name of university departments and degrees in the UK and North America. It takes a singular verb (religious studies is...). Scholars in this field describe themselves as neutral or non-confessional, in contrast to confessional theology.
Examples
Religious studies treats Hinduism, Islam and new movements with the same descriptive methods.
He took a master's in religious studies before starting fieldwork in Indonesia.
Usage note
Do not drop the -s: 'religious study' is not the name of the field.
Common phrases
department of religious studies · a degree in religious studies · theology and religious studies · religious studies scholar
Set apart and treated with special reverence because of a connection to God, the divine or religious tradition; often contrasted with the profane, or ordinary.
Where you use it
Common before nouns: sacred text, sacred space, sacred music, sacred site. As a noun, the sacred is a key concept in religious studies, especially in the work of Durkheim and Eliade, who contrasted it with the profane.
Examples
For many Hindus the river Ganges is sacred, and bathing in it has deep religious meaning.
Eliade argued that religious people experience certain places as sacred space.
Usage note
Holy is a close synonym used more for persons, places and days (the Holy Land, holy day); sacred is the usual analytical term in academic writing.
Common phrases
sacred text · sacred space · sacred site · the sacred and the profane · sacred music
The academic study of the similarities and differences between religions, such as their beliefs, rituals, scriptures and institutions.
Where you use it
An older name for much of what is now called religious studies, associated with nineteenth-century scholars such as Max Müller. Today it often refers to a method: comparing a theme, for example fasting or sacred space, across several traditions.
Examples
Comparative religion asks whether concepts like 'scripture' fit every tradition equally well.
She teaches comparative religion with a focus on Islam and Christianity in Anatolia.
Usage note
Comparative religion means comparing religions, not ranking them; a paper that argues one tradition is better belongs to apologetics, not to this field.
Common phrases
study comparative religion · comparative religion course · comparative method · comparative study of religion
The branch of sociology that studies religion as a social phenomenon: how it shapes, and is shaped by, groups, institutions, power and social change.
Where you use it
Its classic founders are Durkheim, Weber and, more critically, Marx. Typical topics are secularization, conversion, new religious movements, religion and politics, and religion among migrants. In Turkish theology faculties it is the department of Din Sosyolojisi.
Examples
Durkheim's study of totemism is a founding text of the sociology of religion.
Her doctorate in the sociology of religion examined how young people in Istanbul relate to mosque communities.
Usage note
A researcher in this field is a sociologist of religion, not a 'religion sociologist'.
Common phrases
classical sociology of religion · a sociologist of religion · sociology of religion and theology
An approach to studying religion that describes religious phenomena as believers experience them, while setting aside the question of whether their claims are true.
Where you use it
Associated with Rudolf Otto, Gerardus van der Leeuw, Mircea Eliade and Ninian Smart. Key ideas are epoché (bracketing one's own judgements), empathy and the comparison of types of phenomena such as sacrifice, prayer or sacred time.
Examples
The phenomenology of religion asks what prayer means to those who pray, not whether prayers are answered.
Critics argue that the classical phenomenology of religion paid too little attention to history and power.
Usage note
Epoché is pronounced EP-oh-kee. Rudolf Otto's word numinous, for the sense of awe before the holy, often appears in this literature.
Common phrases
classical phenomenology of religion · phenomenological approach · phenomenology and history of religions
Organized conversation and cooperation between people of different religions, aimed at mutual understanding rather than at converting one another.
Where you use it
Also called interreligious dialogue. You engage in, promote or take part in interfaith dialogue. Universities, religious institutions and local councils organize interfaith events, and the field studies their methods, goals and limits.
Examples
The Second Vatican Council's declaration Nostra Aetate opened a new phase of interfaith dialogue.
Students organized an interfaith dialogue on how different traditions care for the dying.
Usage note
Dialogue is spelled dialog in some American texts; both are correct, but academic writing usually keeps dialogue.
To change from one religion or belief to another, or to cause someone else to make this change.
Where you use it
Use convert to (convert to Islam, convert to Catholicism) and convert from. The noun is conversion (religious conversion, conversion narratives), and a person who has converted is a convert. Trying actively to convert others is proselytizing.
Examples
He converted to Buddhism after several years of living in Japan.
Historians debate how quickly the population of Anatolia converted to Islam after the eleventh century.
Usage note
The verb is stressed on the second syllable (con-VERT), the noun on the first (a CON-vert).
Common phrases
convert to Islam · convert to Christianity · religious conversion · a recent convert
A monotheistic religion that began in seventh-century Arabia with the Prophet Muhammad; Muslims regard the Qur'an as God's word and follow practices such as the Five Pillars.
Where you use it
Followers are Muslims; the adjective for people is Muslim (Muslim scholars), and for things, ideas and civilization it is usually Islamic (Islamic law, Islamic art). Academic writing avoids generalizations like 'Islam says' and prefers 'many Muslim scholars hold' or 'in classical Islamic law'.
Examples
Islam spread from Arabia to North Africa, Persia and Central Asia within a century.
The module surveys early Islamic history and the formation of the legal schools.
Usage note
Avoid the outdated term 'Mohammedan': it is considered inaccurate and offensive, because Muslims do not worship Muhammad.
Common phrases
Sunni Islam · Shia Islam · early Islam · convert to Islam · the Five Pillars of Islam
A monotheistic religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus of Nazareth, whom Christians believe to be the Son of God; it began in the first century CE.
Where you use it
The largest religion in the world by number of followers. Its three main branches are Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism. Followers are Christians, and the adjective Christian is used for people, texts and institutions (Christian thought, early Christian communities).
Examples
Christianity spread across Anatolia very early, and Paul's letters mention several of its cities.
The seminar traces how Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.
Usage note
Always capitalized. The current official Turkish spelling is Hristiyan and Hristiyanlık; the older form Hıristiyan is still common in print.
Common phrases
early Christianity · Eastern Christianity · convert to Christianity · history of Christianity
The religion, culture and way of life of the Jewish people, based on the covenant with God described in the Hebrew Bible and developed in the Talmud and later teaching.
Where you use it
Scholars distinguish ancient Israelite religion, Second Temple Judaism and rabbinic Judaism, and speak of modern movements such as Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism. The adjective is Jewish (Jewish law, Jewish communities); Judaic appears mainly in the name Judaic studies.
Examples
Rabbinic Judaism developed after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE.
Her research focuses on Judaism in the Ottoman Empire and the life of Sephardic communities.
Usage note
In Turkish both Yahudilik and Musevilik are used; Musevi is a more formal word for a Jewish person. In English, 'Jew' and 'Jewish' are the normal neutral words.
A family of religious traditions that developed in South Asia, with no single founder, sharing scriptures such as the Vedas and ideas such as dharma, karma and rebirth.
Where you use it
Scholars stress that Hinduism is an umbrella term, partly shaped in the colonial period, for very diverse traditions; many Hindus call their tradition Sanatana Dharma. Main currents include Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism. Followers are Hindus.
Examples
Hinduism has no single creed, so the course follows practices, texts and regions instead.
Temple worship plays a central role in many forms of Hinduism in southern India.
Usage note
Hindu (a follower of Hinduism) is not the same as Indian (Hintli) or Hindi (a language). Turkish speakers often mix these up.
Common phrases
modern Hinduism · Vedic religion · Hindu traditions · Hindu nationalism · forms of Hinduism
A religious and philosophical tradition based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, who lived in northern India around the fifth century BCE.
Where you use it
Its main branches are Theravada (Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia), Mahayana (East Asia) and Vajrayana (Tibet and the Himalayas). Key terms include the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, nirvana and the sangha (monastic community). Followers are Buddhists; the adjective is Buddhist.
Examples
Buddhism reached China along the Silk Road in the early centuries CE.
Uyghur Buddhist manuscripts show how the tradition developed in Central Asia.
Usage note
Pronunciation varies: BOOD-ism (/ˈbʊdɪzəm/) is most common, but /ˈbuːdɪzəm/ is also heard. Buddha is a title meaning 'awakened one', not a personal name.
Common phrases
Theravada Buddhism · Mahayana Buddhism · Tibetan Buddhism · Zen Buddhism · early Buddhism
Belonging to the largest branch of Islam, followed by most Muslims worldwide, which accepts the first four caliphs as the rightful successors of the Prophet Muhammad.
Where you use it
Used as an adjective (Sunni Islam, Sunni scholars) and as a noun (a Sunni, Sunnis). The full Arabic name is ahl al-sunna wa'l-jama'a. Sunni law has four main schools, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali, and its main theological schools are the Ash'ari and Maturidi.
Examples
Sunni Muslims make up the large majority of the world's Muslim population.
Most Sunni Muslims in Turkey follow the Hanafi school of law and Maturidi theology.
Usage note
In English, the Hanafi or Shafi'i mezhep is called a school of law (madhhab), while Sunni and Shia are branches of Islam; avoid calling either a 'sect' in neutral writing.
Common phrases
Sunni Islam · Sunni Muslims · Sunni schools of law · Sunni and Shia
Belonging to the second-largest branch of Islam, whose followers believe that leadership after the Prophet Muhammad belonged to Ali and his descendants, the Imams.
Where you use it
The name comes from Shi'at Ali, 'the party of Ali'. Used as an adjective (Shia Islam) and a noun (Shias). The largest group is the Twelvers (Ja'fari school); others are the Ismailis and Zaydis. Shia Muslims form the majority in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan and Bahrain.
Examples
Shia Muslims commemorate the death of Husayn at Karbala in 680 CE on the day of Ashura.
Twelver Shia Islam is the official religion of Iran.
Usage note
Spellings vary: Shia, Shi'a, Shi'i and Shiite. Many scholars now prefer Shia or Shi'i; choose one and use it consistently.
Common phrases
Shia Islam · Shia Muslims · Twelver Shia · Sunni and Shia
The faith, teaching and practice of the Catholic Church, the largest Christian church, which is led by the Pope as Bishop of Rome.
Where you use it
Also called Roman Catholicism. The adjective and noun are Catholic (Catholic theology, a practising Catholic). Besides the Latin Church, it includes Eastern Catholic churches that keep their own rites. Turkey has small Latin, Armenian, Chaldean and Syriac Catholic communities.
Examples
Catholicism spread to Latin America with Spanish and Portuguese colonization.
The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) brought major changes to modern Catholicism.
Usage note
Lowercase catholic means 'wide-ranging' (she has catholic tastes in music); it comes from the Greek word for 'universal'.
Common phrases
Roman Catholicism · modern Catholicism · convert to Catholicism · Catholic doctrine
The branch of Christianity that grew out of the sixteenth-century Reformation, stressing the authority of the Bible and salvation by grace through faith.
Where you use it
Includes many denominations: Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), Baptist, Methodist, Pentecostal and others; Anglicanism is sometimes treated separately. Key principles are often summed up as sola scriptura (scripture alone) and sola fide (faith alone). Followers are Protestants.
Examples
Protestantism divided into many denominations within a few generations.
Weber linked the rise of modern capitalism to the ethics of ascetic Protestantism.
Usage note
The name goes back to a 1529 'protest' by Lutheran princes at the Diet of Speyer. Turkish 'Protestan' is pronounced with the stress on the last syllable, English Protestant on the first: PROT-is-tant.
The Christian tradition of the Eastern Orthodox churches, such as the Greek, Russian and Serbian churches, which share doctrine and liturgy and are in communion with each other.
Where you use it
Also called Orthodox Christianity or the Orthodox Church. It is made up of self-governing (autocephalous) churches; the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, based in Istanbul, is honoured as 'first among equals'. Its separation from Rome is traditionally dated to 1054.
Examples
Eastern Orthodoxy gives icons and the Divine Liturgy a central place in worship.
The Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul holds a special place of honour in Eastern Orthodoxy.
Usage note
The Armenian, Syriac and Coptic churches belong to a separate family, the Oriental Orthodox churches; do not call them Eastern Orthodox. Lowercase orthodoxy simply means accepted, correct belief.
Judaism, Christianity and Islam considered together as religions that trace their origins or spiritual ancestry to the figure of Abraham.
Where you use it
Common in comparative religion, interfaith dialogue and public debate (the three Abrahamic faiths). Some lists also include smaller traditions such as the Baha'i Faith. Some scholars criticize the label for making the traditions look more alike than they are.
Examples
The course compares prayer and fasting in the three Abrahamic religions.
Some scholars argue that the label 'Abrahamic religions' hides real differences between the traditions.
Usage note
Turkish 'semavi dinler' (heavenly or revealed religions) is common but not identical in meaning; translate it as 'revealed religions' or 'Abrahamic religions' depending on the context.
Common phrases
the three Abrahamic religions · Abrahamic faiths · Abrahamic traditions · Abrahamic monotheism
A monotheistic religion founded by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region of South Asia around 1500 and shaped by ten successive human Gurus.
Where you use it
Followers are Sikhs. The scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, is honoured as the eternal Guru. The place of worship is the gurdwara, which includes a free community kitchen (langar). The best-known gurdwara is the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar.
Examples
In Sikhism, the scripture Guru Granth Sahib is treated as a living Guru.
Serving free meals to all visitors is a central practice of Sikhism.
Usage note
Older textbooks sometimes described Sikhism as a mixture of Hinduism and Islam; most scholars today, and Sikhs themselves, treat it as a distinct tradition.
Common phrases
the Sikh Gurus · Sikh scripture · Sikh community · Sikhism and Hinduism
A Chinese religious and philosophical tradition centred on the Dao, 'the Way', the natural order of the universe, and associated with the Daodejing and the sage Laozi.
Where you use it
Also spelled Taoism, an older romanization. Classical texts include the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi; key ideas include wu wei (effortless action) and the balance of yin and yang. Scholars now question the old split between 'philosophical' and 'religious' Daoism.
Examples
Daoism and Confucianism shaped Chinese ideas about nature and society for centuries.
Daoist priests perform rituals for the whole community during major festivals.
Usage note
Daoism and Taoism are pronounced the same, with a d sound: DOW-ism.
Trust and commitment to God or to religious teachings, often held without proof; also used as another word for a whole religion or religious community.
Where you use it
Uncountable when it means trust (faith in God, lose one's faith). Countable when it means a religion (people of all faiths, the Jewish faith). Faith and reason, faith-based organizations and interfaith dialogue are frequent phrases in academic and public writing.
Examples
The chaplaincy team supports students of all faiths and of none.
Medieval thinkers spent centuries discussing the relationship between faith and reason.
Usage note
In good faith (iyi niyetle) has nothing to do with religion. Do not confuse faith with fate (kader).
Common phrases
faith in God · people of all faiths · faith and reason · lose one's faith · faith community
Something a person or group accepts as true, especially an idea about God, the world or the afterlife; also the state of accepting it.
Where you use it
Countable for specific ideas (core beliefs, religious beliefs) and uncountable for the attitude (belief in God). Note the two patterns: belief in something (in God, in angels) and belief that something is true. Academic writing often pairs it with practice: beliefs and practices.
Examples
Belief in angels is one of the six articles of faith in Sunni Islam.
The survey asked people about their beliefs and how often they attend services.
Usage note
The noun is belief (plural beliefs) and the verb is believe. Do not write 'believes' for the plural noun.
Common phrases
religious beliefs · belief in God · beliefs and practices · core belief · freedom of belief
Belief that there is only one God; Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Sikhism are usually described as monotheistic religions.
Where you use it
Used in comparative religion and history of religions, often with the adjective monotheistic (monotheistic traditions, monotheistic faiths). Scholars also discuss the emergence of monotheism in ancient Israel and debates about how strict a tradition's monotheism is.
Examples
Islamic theology describes strict monotheism with the Arabic term tawhid.
Sikhism is a monotheistic tradition that emerged in the Punjab in the fifteenth century.
Usage note
The prefix mono- means 'one' and poly- means 'many'; the same pattern gives monotheistic and polytheistic.
Common phrases
strict monotheism · ethical monotheism · monotheistic religions · the rise of monotheism
Belief in and worship of many gods, each often linked to particular powers or areas of life, as in ancient Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Norse religion.
Where you use it
A descriptive term in history of religions, usually with ancient or classical traditions. Scholars use it carefully for living traditions: Hinduism, for example, includes many deities, but many Hindus understand them as forms of one ultimate reality, so labels like henotheism are also discussed.
Examples
Roman polytheism made room for new gods as the empire expanded.
Early travellers described the religion as polytheistic without understanding its theology.
Usage note
In Islamic terminology, shirk (associating partners with God) is a doctrinal judgement, not a neutral synonym of polytheism; translate it as shirk or 'associating partners with God'.
A belief or set of beliefs that a religious community officially teaches and expects its members to accept.
Where you use it
Used for particular teachings (the doctrine of the Trinity, the doctrine of karma) and for teaching as a whole (Catholic doctrine). Common verbs: formulate, develop, teach, reject a doctrine. The adjective doctrinal appears in phrases like doctrinal differences and doctrinal debates.
Examples
The council formulated the doctrine in language that later generations debated for centuries.
Doctrinal differences between the two schools were smaller than their polemics suggest.
Usage note
Doctrine in religion is neutral, but in politics (a military doctrine) or everyday English (rigid doctrine) it can sound dogmatic.
Common phrases
Christian doctrine · official doctrine · formulate a doctrine · doctrinal differences · the doctrine of
In many religions, the communication of truth, will or guidance from God to human beings, often through prophets or sacred texts.
Where you use it
Central in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Scholars describe it with attribution (Muslims understand the Qur'an as revelation received by the Prophet Muhammad). The verb is reveal, and revealed appears in phrases like revealed religion and revealed text.
Examples
According to Islamic tradition, the first revelation came to the Prophet Muhammad in the cave of Hira.
Medieval philosophers asked whether reason alone could reach truths known through revelation.
Usage note
Revelation (singular) is also the title of the last book of the New Testament, often wrongly called 'Revelations'.
Common phrases
divine revelation · receive a revelation · reason and revelation · revealed religion · the first revelation
A person believed by a religious community to have been chosen by God to receive and deliver divine messages to people.
Where you use it
Used for figures in the Hebrew Bible (the prophet Isaiah), in Christianity and in Islam. In academic English the Prophet Muhammad, with a capital P, is the standard respectful form; plain Muhammad is also used. The adjective prophetic appears in prophetic tradition (sunna) and prophetic books.
Examples
Islam recognizes many prophets, including Abraham, Moses and Jesus.
The prophets of the Hebrew Bible often criticized the injustice of kings.
Usage note
Prophet and profit (kar) are pronounced the same, /ˈprɒfɪt/; context tells you which one is meant.
Common phrases
the Prophet Muhammad · Hebrew prophets · prophetic tradition · seal of the prophets · prophet and messenger
A god or goddess; any being that is worshipped as divine in a religious tradition.
Where you use it
A neutral, slightly formal word used in comparative work for gods of many traditions (Hindu deities, Greek deities, a local deity). The plural is deities. In monotheistic contexts writers usually say God instead.
Examples
Shiva and Vishnu are among the most widely worshipped Hindu deities.
Each ancient city in Anatolia had its own patron deity.
Usage note
Two pronunciations are common: DAY-uh-tee (/ˈdeɪəti/) and DEE-uh-tee (/ˈdiːəti/).
Common phrases
Hindu deities · patron deity · local deity · female deity · worship a deity
Relating to God or a god, or coming from God; as a noun, the divine refers to God or the ultimate sacred reality in general terms.
Where you use it
Frequent in theological phrases: divine revelation, divine will, divine law, divine attributes, divine justice. In comparative writing, 'the divine' is a useful neutral term that does not assume one tradition's idea of God. The Orthodox eucharistic service is called the Divine Liturgy.
Examples
Islamic theology discusses the divine attributes, such as knowledge, power and will.
Many traditions describe the divine as beyond the reach of human language.
Usage note
Turkish 'ilahi' as a noun means a hymn, which is hymn in English, not divine. In casual old-fashioned English, divine can also mean 'wonderful' (a divine dinner).
Common phrases
divine revelation · divine will · divine attributes · divine law · the divine
Being saved or set free from sin, suffering or their consequences, and reaching a final state of well-being with God or ultimate reality.
Where you use it
A central idea in Christian theology; the study of salvation is called soteriology. Phrases include salvation by grace, the path to salvation and salvation history. For Hindu and Buddhist goals, scholars often prefer liberation (moksha) or awakening.
Examples
Debates about faith, works and salvation were central to the Reformation.
In comparative work, 'liberation' often fits Hindu traditions better than 'salvation'.
Usage note
Turkish 'necat' and 'kurtuluş' both translate salvation; 'kurtuluş' is the safer choice in neutral academic Turkish.
Common phrases
path to salvation · salvation by grace · hope of salvation · salvation history
Existence after death as a religious tradition describes it, for example resurrection and judgement, paradise and hell, or rebirth in a new life.
Where you use it
Usually with the: belief in the afterlife, rewards in the afterlife. Also countable when comparing traditions (different ideas of an afterlife). The theological study of last things, including the afterlife, is eschatology.
Examples
Ancient Egyptian tombs were filled with objects for use in the afterlife.
Belief in the afterlife and the Day of Judgement is one of the articles of faith in Islam.
Usage note
Turkish 'ahiret' belongs to the Abrahamic context; for Hindu or Buddhist ideas, 'yeniden doğuş' (rebirth) is more accurate than ahiret.
Common phrases
belief in the afterlife · life in the afterlife · ideas of the afterlife · rewards in the afterlife
In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, the principle that a person's intentional actions have consequences that shape their future, including future lives.
Where you use it
The Sanskrit word means 'action'. Academic texts speak of the doctrine or law of karma, karma and rebirth, and good or bad karma. Each tradition understands it differently: Jain thought treats karma as a fine kind of matter, while Buddhism stresses intention.
Examples
In Buddhist teaching, karma depends above all on the intention behind an action.
The doctrine of karma explains why beings are reborn in different conditions.
Usage note
In everyday English, karma loosely means 'what goes around comes around'. In academic writing, use it in the precise sense of each tradition.
Common phrases
law of karma · karma and rebirth · good karma · doctrine of karma
A key idea in Indian religions meaning duty, law and the right order of things; in Buddhism it also refers to the teaching of the Buddha.
Where you use it
In Hindu thought, a person's dharma depends on their stage of life and social position, and many Hindus call their religion Sanatana Dharma, the 'eternal dharma'. In Buddhism, the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha are the Three Jewels. Theravada texts use the Pali form dhamma.
Examples
The Bhagavad Gita discusses Arjuna's dharma as a warrior.
Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha.
Usage note
Writers often capitalize Dharma when it means the Buddha's teaching and keep dharma lowercase for duty or cosmic order.
Common phrases
Sanatana Dharma · teach the Dharma · one's dharma · the Buddha's Dharma
The belief that after death a soul or self is born again in a new body, human or otherwise; it is found in Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and other traditions.
Where you use it
Linked to the cycle of birth, death and rebirth called samsara and to the doctrine of karma. Transmigration is an older synonym. For Buddhism, scholars usually prefer rebirth, because Buddhist teaching denies a permanent soul that moves from life to life.
Examples
Belief in reincarnation is closely linked to the doctrine of karma.
Because Buddhism denies a permanent soul, many scholars avoid the word reincarnation and speak of rebirth.
Usage note
Turkish 'tenasüh' is the classical Islamic term used in kalam texts that discuss and reject the idea; in neutral academic Turkish, 'reenkarnasyon' or 'yeniden doğuş' is more common.
Common phrases
belief in reincarnation · cycle of reincarnation · reincarnation and karma · rebirth
In Buddhism, the final goal of the spiritual path: the ending of craving, suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
Where you use it
The Sanskrit word means 'blowing out', like a flame. You attain or reach nirvana. The Pali form is nibbana. The Buddha's final passing at death is called parinirvana. The term is also used in Jainism.
Examples
Theravada texts describe nirvana as the complete ending of greed, hatred and delusion.
In everyday English, nirvana has come to mean a state of perfect happiness.
Usage note
Nirvana is not a paradise or a place in Buddhist teaching. Avoid describing it as 'Buddhist heaven'.
Common phrases
attain nirvana · reach nirvana · the path to nirvana · nirvana and samsara
In mainstream Christian doctrine, the belief that God is one being who exists in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit.
Where you use it
Usually with the and a capital T (the doctrine of the Trinity, the Holy Trinity). The doctrine was formulated at the councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381). The adjective is Trinitarian. Some Christian groups, such as Unitarians, do not accept it.
Examples
The doctrine of the Trinity was formulated at the councils of Nicaea and Constantinople.
Theologians explain the Trinity with technical terms such as 'person' and 'substance'.
Usage note
Nicaea and Constantinople are today's İznik and Istanbul, so several key moments of Christian history took place in what is now Turkey.
Common phrases
the doctrine of the Trinity · the Holy Trinity · Trinitarian theology · the persons of the Trinity
A solemn agreement or promise, especially the relationship between God and a people described in the Hebrew Bible, for example with Abraham or with Israel at Mount Sinai.
Where you use it
You make, keep or break a covenant. Central in Judaism (the covenant with Abraham, the Sinai covenant) and in Christian theology (the new covenant). Islamic thought speaks of a primordial covenant (mithaq) between God and humanity.
Examples
In Genesis, God makes a covenant with Abraham and promises him many descendants.
Early Christians described their community as living under a new covenant.
Usage note
Testament comes from the Latin word for covenant; that is why the Old and New Testaments are Eski Ahit and Yeni Ahit in Turkish.
Common phrases
make a covenant · the Sinai covenant · the new covenant · keep the covenant · covenant with Abraham
A short formal statement of the central beliefs of a religion or community, often recited in worship, such as the Nicene Creed in Christianity.
Where you use it
You recite, confess or profess a creed. Well-known examples are the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed. Scholars also use the word for short Islamic statements of belief ('aqida texts). In general English, people of every creed means people of every religion.
Examples
The Nicene Creed is recited in many churches during the Sunday service.
Medieval Muslim scholars wrote short creeds summarizing the articles of faith.
Usage note
Turkish 'amentü' refers specifically to the Islamic statement of the articles of faith; creed is broader and covers all traditions.
Common phrases
the Nicene Creed · the Apostles' Creed · recite the creed · profess a creed · people of every creed
The sacred writings of a religion, regarded by its followers as authoritative and often as revealed or inspired, such as the Qur'an, the Bible or the Vedas.
Where you use it
Used both uncountably (Hindu scripture, the role of scripture) and countably (the scriptures of different traditions). With a capital S, Scripture or the Scriptures usually means the Christian Bible. The adjective scriptural is common in academic writing (scriptural evidence, scriptural authority).
Examples
Each tradition we study this term has its own understanding of how scripture should be read.
The jurists supported their ruling with scriptural evidence from the Qur'an and hadith.
Usage note
Turkish 'nas' (a scriptural text used as evidence in Islamic law) is usually translated as scriptural text or scriptural evidence.
The sacred scriptures of Christianity, made up of the Old Testament and the New Testament; the Jewish Bible, or Tanakh, largely corresponds to the Old Testament.
Where you use it
Written with a capital B, but the adjective biblical is usually lowercase (biblical studies, biblical scholars). Neutral academic writing often says Hebrew Bible instead of Old Testament. The number of books differs: Protestant Bibles have 66 and Catholic Bibles 73.
Examples
Students compared three English translations of the Bible in today's seminar.
Most biblical scholars date the Gospel of Mark to around 70 CE.
Usage note
Lowercase bible also means the most trusted handbook in a field (this dictionary is the translator's bible).
Common phrases
the Hebrew Bible · biblical studies · Bible translation · biblical scholar · read the Bible
The central sacred text of Islam, which Muslims believe God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic over about 23 years; it has 114 chapters called suras.
Where you use it
Spelled Qur'an or Quran in current academic English; Koran is an older form. The adjective is Qur'anic (Qur'anic studies, a Qur'anic verse). Chapters are suras and verses are ayas or ayat. People recite, memorize and interpret the Qur'an.
Examples
The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras of very different lengths.
In class we compared how three classical commentators read the same Qur'anic verse.
Usage note
Many Muslims regard only the Arabic text as the Qur'an itself, so English versions are often titled as interpretations of its meaning rather than as 'the Qur'an'.
Common phrases
recite the Qur'an · Qur'anic studies · Qur'anic verse · translation of the Qur'an · memorize the Qur'an
The first five books of the Hebrew Bible, traditionally attributed to Moses; in a wider sense, the whole body of Jewish teaching and law.
Where you use it
The five books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy; scholars also call them the Pentateuch. A Torah scroll is kept in the synagogue and read in weekly portions. Rabbinic tradition speaks of a written Torah and an oral Torah.
Examples
A portion of the Torah is read aloud in the synagogue every Sabbath.
Rabbinic tradition holds that the oral Torah was given together with the written Torah.
Usage note
Turkish 'Tevrat' is sometimes used loosely for the whole Old Testament. In English, Torah means the five books or Jewish teaching; the whole Hebrew Bible is the Tanakh.
Common phrases
Torah scroll · written Torah · oral Torah · study Torah · the Five Books of Moses
A report of the words, actions or approval of the Prophet Muhammad, passed down through a chain of narrators; hadith are a major source of Islamic law and practice.
Where you use it
Used for a single report (a hadith) and for the whole body of reports (the hadith literature). Key terms: isnad (chain of narrators), matn (text), hadith criticism and hadith collections such as Sahih al-Bukhari. Shia collections also include reports from the Imams.
Examples
Al-Bukhari's collection is the most respected hadith collection in Sunni Islam.
Scholars examined the chain of narrators to judge whether the hadith was reliable.
Usage note
The plural is either hadith or hadiths. Do not confuse hadith (the reports) with sunna (the Prophet's normative example that the reports describe).
Common phrases
hadith collection · hadith criticism · hadith literature · narrate a hadith · authentic hadith
The oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, composed in Sanskrit and passed down orally for many centuries; there are four Vedas, of which the Rigveda is the oldest.
Where you use it
The four Vedas are the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Hindu tradition classes them as shruti, 'what is heard'. The Upanishads form the final layer of Vedic literature. Scholars speak of the Vedic period, Vedic religion and Vedic ritual.
Examples
The Vedas were transmitted orally by priestly families long before they were written down.
Hymns in the Vedas praise deities such as Agni, the god of fire, and Indra.
Usage note
The singular is Veda and the adjective is Vedic, pronounced VAY-dik.
Common phrases
the four Vedas · Vedic literature · Vedic period · Vedic ritual · Vedic Sanskrit
Careful, detailed explanation of a text, especially of scripture, that tries to bring out its meaning through its language, historical context and tradition of reading.
Where you use it
Common in biblical studies (biblical exegesis) and Islamic studies, where Qur'anic exegesis translates tafsir. A person who does it is an exegete; the adjective is exegetical. Scholars contrast it with eisegesis, reading one's own ideas into a text.
Examples
Al-Tabari's commentary is one of the most important early works of Qur'anic exegesis.
Her exegesis of the passage pays close attention to the Greek grammar.
Usage note
Stress falls on the third syllable: ex-e-GEE-sis. The plural is exegeses (ex-e-GEE-seez).
The theory and method of interpretation, especially of sacred texts; it asks how readers can understand a text written in another time, language and culture.
Where you use it
Takes a singular verb (hermeneutics is...). Exegesis is the practice of interpreting a particular text; hermeneutics is the reflection on how interpretation works. Philosophical hermeneutics is linked to Schleiermacher, Gadamer and Ricoeur. The adjective is hermeneutic or hermeneutical.
Examples
Debates about hermeneutics shaped Qur'anic studies in Turkey from the 1990s onwards.
Feminist hermeneutics asks whose voices are missing from traditional readings of scripture.
Usage note
Stress falls on the third syllable: her-me-NEW-tics. The word comes from Greek hermeneuein, 'to interpret'.
Common phrases
biblical hermeneutics · philosophical hermeneutics · hermeneutic circle · hermeneutics of suspicion
One of the four accounts of the life, teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus in the New Testament, attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John; also the Christian message itself.
Where you use it
Capitalized for the books (the Gospel of John, the four Gospels) and usually lowercase for the message (preach the gospel). Matthew, Mark and Luke are the Synoptic Gospels. The word comes from Old English 'good news', a translation of Greek euangelion.
Examples
Matthew, Mark and Luke are called the Synoptic Gospels because they share much material.
The Gospel of John differs from the other three in style and structure.
Usage note
Turkish 'İncil' has several meanings: in Islamic usage the scripture given to Jesus (Injil in English), and for Turkish Christians the New Testament or each of the four Gospels. In English, say which one you mean.
Common phrases
the four Gospels · the Synoptic Gospels · the Gospel of Mark · preach the gospel
The official list of books that a religious community accepts as authoritative scripture, such as the biblical canon; also a rule or decree made by a church council.
Where you use it
Scholars study the formation of the canon and ask when a canon was closed. The adjective canonical describes accepted texts (canonical Gospels) and, in Islamic studies, the six canonical hadith collections. Books outside the canon are non-canonical or apocryphal.
Examples
Jewish and Christian communities did not agree on exactly the same canon of scripture.
The council issued several canons on how bishops should be chosen.
Usage note
Canonize also means to declare someone a saint. In literature, the canon means the works generally seen as classics.
Common phrases
the biblical canon · formation of the canon · canonical texts · closed canon
The central text of rabbinic Judaism, which combines the Mishnah, an early code of Jewish oral law, with the Gemara, centuries of rabbinic discussion of it.
Where you use it
There are two versions: the Jerusalem Talmud and the larger, more authoritative Babylonian Talmud, completed around the sixth century CE. It is written mainly in Hebrew and Aramaic and studied intensively in yeshivas. The adjective is Talmudic.
Examples
The Babylonian Talmud is the version most studied in yeshivas today.
Talmudic debates often record minority opinions alongside the accepted ruling.
Usage note
Talmud is usually pronounced TAHL-mood or TAL-mud. It is a library of discussion rather than a single book of rules.
Common phrases
the Babylonian Talmud · Talmud study · Talmudic debate · Talmudic literature
The acts of honour, prayer and devotion that believers direct towards God or the divine, either privately or together with others.
Where you use it
Used as a noun (communal worship, a place of worship) and as a verb (Muslims worship in a mosque, Hindus worship many forms of the divine). Place of worship is the neutral umbrella term for mosques, churches, synagogues, temples and gurdwaras.
Examples
The new law protects all places of worship, regardless of the community that uses them.
Friday worship brings the whole congregation together in the main mosque.
Usage note
Turkish 'tapınmak' can sound like idol worship to some readers; for Islamic contexts 'ibadet etmek' is the natural translation of worship.
Common phrases
place of worship · communal worship · public worship · freedom of worship · worship God
A set of actions, words or gestures performed in a fixed, repeated way, often with symbolic or religious meaning, such as a prayer service, a wedding or a funeral.
Where you use it
A key analytical word in anthropology and sociology of religion: scholars perform ritual analysis and talk about ritual action, ritual purity and ritual space. It is also an adjective (ritual washing, ritual slaughter). In Turkish academic writing 'ritüel' is the usual term; 'ayin' sounds more liturgical.
Examples
Ritual washing before prayer is described in detail in the legal manuals.
Her fieldwork looks at how funeral rituals changed in migrant communities.
Usage note
Stress is on the first syllable: RI-tual. Rite is a close synonym but usually refers to one specific ceremony (the rite of baptism).
Common phrases
religious ritual · perform a ritual · ritual purity · funeral rituals · ritual practice
Communication addressed to God or the divine, either in one's own words or in a fixed ritual form, such as the five daily prayers in Islam.
Where you use it
English uses one word where Turkish distinguishes dua and namaz. Academic texts clarify with ritual prayer, obligatory prayer or salat for namaz, and supplication or personal prayer for dua. Common verbs: say a prayer, lead the prayer, perform prayers.
Examples
The imam leads the Friday prayer and then gives a short sermon.
In the Psalms we find prayers of praise, thanksgiving and lament.
Usage note
Prayer (the act) is pronounced with one syllable, /preə/. A person who prays is also a prayer, but pronounced /ˈpreɪə/; this second use is rare.
Common phrases
daily prayers · Friday prayer · lead the prayer · say a prayer · prayer times
A journey to a holy place made for religious reasons, such as the Hajj to Mecca, the Kumbh Mela in India or the Camino to Santiago de Compostela.
Where you use it
You make or go on a pilgrimage, and a person who does so is a pilgrim. Pilgrimage studies is a growing research area that looks at travel, economy and identity. For Islam, academic texts usually say Hajj for the obligatory pilgrimage and umrah for the shorter, voluntary one.
Examples
The Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca that every Muslim who is able should make once in a lifetime.
Medieval Christians went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Rome and the shrines of saints.
Usage note
In Turkish, 'hac' is used only for the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca; for other traditions 'kutsal yolculuk' or 'ziyaret' sounds more natural.
Common phrases
go on pilgrimage · make a pilgrimage · pilgrimage site · the annual pilgrimage · pilgrimage route
Going without food, drink or certain foods for a set period as a religious practice, for example during Ramadan, on Yom Kippur or in Lent.
Where you use it
From the verb fast (Muslims fast during Ramadan) and the noun a fast (a 40-day fast). You keep or observe a fast and break your fast; the evening meal in Ramadan is iftar and the pre-dawn meal is suhur. Christian Lent is called Büyük Perhiz in Turkish.
Examples
Fasting during Ramadan lasts from dawn until sunset.
Orthodox Christians observe several periods of fasting, when they avoid meat and dairy products.
Usage note
The English word breakfast literally means 'breaking the night's fast'. Fast here has nothing to do with speed.
Common phrases
fasting month · break the fast · observe a fast · periods of fasting · fast during Ramadan
The ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, during which Muslims fast from dawn to sunset and give special attention to prayer, charity and reading the Qur'an.
Where you use it
Always capitalized in English. Common phrases: during Ramadan, the month of Ramadan, Ramadan fasting, Ramadan Mubarak (a greeting). It ends with Eid al-Fitr, known in Turkey as Ramazan Bayramı or Şeker Bayramı.
Examples
Because the Islamic calendar is lunar, Ramadan begins about eleven days earlier each year.
The end of Ramadan is celebrated with Eid al-Fitr, a festival of prayer, family visits and gifts.
Usage note
Ramazan is the Turkish and Persian pronunciation; in English texts about Turkey you may see both spellings.
Common phrases
during Ramadan · the month of Ramadan · Ramadan fasting · the end of Ramadan · Ramadan Mubarak
The weekly day of rest and worship in Judaism, from Friday sunset to Saturday nightfall; many Christians use the word for Sunday as their day of rest.
Where you use it
Academic texts often use the Hebrew form Shabbat. You keep or observe the Sabbath, and work, travel or cooking may be avoided. Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, keep the Sabbath on Saturday.
Examples
Observant Jews do not work on the Sabbath.
The Sabbath begins at home with lighting candles and blessing wine.
Usage note
Friday in Islam is the day of congregational prayer (jumu'ah) but is not traditionally a day of rest like the Sabbath, so avoid calling it 'the Muslim Sabbath'.
Common phrases
keep the Sabbath · observe the Sabbath · Sabbath meal · on the Sabbath
A talk on a religious or moral subject given by a preacher or religious leader, usually as part of a worship service.
Where you use it
You give, deliver or preach a sermon. In mosques, the Friday sermon (khutbah) is part of the congregational prayer; in Catholic Mass it is usually called a homily. The Sermon on the Mount is a famous passage in the Gospel of Matthew.
Examples
The Friday sermon is delivered from the minbar before the congregational prayer.
Historians use printed sermons to study religious attitudes in early modern Europe.
Usage note
Turkish separates hutbe (the Friday or festival sermon) from vaaz (any religious talk); English uses sermon for both. In everyday English, a sermon can also mean an annoying moral lecture.
Common phrases
deliver a sermon · Friday sermon · preach a sermon · the Sermon on the Mount
The fixed order of words, prayers and actions used in public worship, especially in Christian churches; also a particular service, such as the Divine Liturgy.
Where you use it
Used for the Orthodox Divine Liturgy, the Catholic Mass and Anglican services, and also for Jewish prayer services. The adjective liturgical appears in liturgical year, liturgical language (Latin, Greek, Syriac) and liturgical music.
Examples
The Divine Liturgy of St John Chrysostom is the most common service in Orthodox churches.
Latin remained the main language of the Catholic liturgy until the 1960s.
Usage note
Stress is on the first syllable: LIT-ur-jee. Syriac Christians in southeastern Turkey still use Syriac as a liturgical language.
Common phrases
the Divine Liturgy · liturgical year · liturgical language · Christian liturgy
In Christianity, a sacred rite believed to be a visible sign through which God's grace is given, such as baptism and the Eucharist.
Where you use it
Catholic and Orthodox churches recognize seven sacraments (the Orthodox often call them mysteries); most Protestant churches recognize two, baptism and the Lord's Supper. You receive or administer a sacrament. The adjective is sacramental.
Examples
The Catholic Church recognizes seven sacraments, including baptism, confirmation and marriage.
Most Protestant churches celebrate only two sacraments: baptism and the Lord's Supper.
Usage note
Turkish Orthodox and Catholic communities usually say 'Kutsal Sır' or 'Kutsal Gizem' rather than the loanword 'sakrament'.
Common phrases
receive a sacrament · the seven sacraments · administer the sacraments · sacramental theology
A ritual that marks a person's move from one stage of life or social status to another, such as birth, coming of age, marriage or death.
Where you use it
The anthropologist Arnold van Gennep introduced the idea in 1909, describing three phases: separation, transition and incorporation. Victor Turner later developed the idea of the liminal, in-between phase. Examples include baptism, circumcision, bar and bat mitzvah, weddings and funerals.
Examples
Van Gennep divided every rite of passage into separation, transition and incorporation.
In Turkey, circumcision is celebrated as a rite of passage for boys, often with a large family party.
Usage note
The plural is rites of passage, not 'rite of passages'. In everyday English the phrase is also used for any important first experience (a first job is a rite of passage).
Common phrases
rites of passage · a rite of passage into adulthood · funeral rites · liminal phase
To follow the rules and practices of a religion, or to keep a religious holiday or custom in the expected way.
Where you use it
Common in academic and formal writing: observe Ramadan, observe the Sabbath, observe dietary laws. The adjective observant describes someone who carefully follows religious practice (an observant Jew, observant Muslims), and the noun is observance (religious observance).
Examples
Many families observe Ramadan together, even when not every member fasts.
The survey asked how strictly respondents observe dietary laws at home.
Usage note
In everyday English, observe usually means 'watch' or 'notice', and observant can mean 'attentive' (dikkatli); the religious sense is a separate meaning.
Common phrases
observe Ramadan · observe the Sabbath · religious observance · observant Muslims
A recognized branch of a religion, especially of Christianity, with its own name, organization and traditions, such as the Lutheran, Methodist or Baptist churches.
Where you use it
A neutral sociological term, used most often for Protestant churches in the English-speaking world. Phrases: Christian denominations, mainline denominations, across denominations. The adjective denominational also describes schools and colleges run by a particular church.
Examples
More than twenty denominations are represented in the city's council of churches.
The survey found that young people switch denominations more often than their parents did.
Usage note
Turkish 'mezhep' has several English equivalents: denomination for Christian churches, school of law (madhhab) for Hanafi or Shafi'i, and branch for Sunni and Shia. Sect can sound negative, so use it carefully.
Common phrases
Christian denominations · Protestant denomination · mainline denominations · across denominations
The people who are formally trained and appointed to perform religious duties and lead a community, such as priests, ministers, imams and rabbis, considered as a group.
Where you use it
A collective noun, usually with a plural verb (the clergy were divided). A single person is a member of the clergy, a cleric or, in Christian contexts, a clergyman or clergywoman. The opposite is the laity (lay people). The adjective is clerical.
Examples
In the Ottoman Empire the Muslim clergy were trained in the madrasas.
The church allowed married clergy in some regions but not in others.
Usage note
Many Muslims and scholars point out that Sunni Islam has no ordained priesthood; 'religious scholars' (ulama) is often more accurate than clergy.
Common phrases
members of the clergy · the clergy and the laity · Muslim clergy · parish clergy · senior clergy
A building where Muslims gather for prayer, especially the Friday congregational prayer, which often also serves as a centre for education and community life.
Where you use it
You go to, attend or pray at a mosque. Architectural terms often appear with it: minaret, dome, courtyard, mihrab (prayer niche showing the direction of Mecca) and minbar (pulpit). Scholars use masjid for any place of prayer and Friday mosque or congregational mosque for a large jami.
Examples
The Süleymaniye Mosque was designed by Mimar Sinan in the sixteenth century.
Many European mosques run Qur'an classes and social services for young people.
Usage note
English mosque covers both cami and mescit; when the difference matters, say masjid for a small prayer space and congregational mosque for a cami.
Common phrases
go to the mosque · Friday mosque · local mosque · mosque community · mosque architecture
A building for Christian worship; also a particular Christian community or organization, such as the Catholic Church, or Christians as a whole.
Where you use it
Lowercase for a building (an old church in Kadıköy) and capitalized for an institution (the Orthodox Church, the Church of England). Historians speak of the early church, church fathers, church councils and church and state.
Examples
The early church met in private homes before it had buildings of its own.
The Catholic Church has its central administration in Vatican City.
Usage note
Go to church (no article) means attend a service; go to the church means visit the building, for example to see its mosaics.
Common phrases
go to church · the early church · church fathers · church and state · the Catholic Church
A Jewish house of prayer, study and community gathering, where the Torah scrolls are kept in an ark and read during services.
Where you use it
You attend services at, or go to, a synagogue. Ashkenazi Jews often use the Yiddish word shul, and some Reform communities call their synagogue a temple. Historians study ancient synagogues in the Galilee and in Anatolian cities such as Sardis.
Examples
The synagogue at Sardis is one of the largest ancient synagogues ever found.
Services in the old synagogue were held in Hebrew, with sermons in Ladino.
Usage note
In formal and academic Turkish, sinagog is preferred; havra is older and more colloquial.
Common phrases
attend synagogue · local synagogue · ancient synagogue · synagogue service
A building dedicated to the worship of a god or gods, especially in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and ancient religions; in Jewish history, the Temple in Jerusalem.
Where you use it
Used for Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Shinto and ancient Greek or Egyptian sacred buildings (temple complex, temple priest, temple festival). With a capital T, the Temple means the First or Second Temple in Jerusalem. Sikh houses of worship are usually called gurdwaras.
Examples
Thousands of pilgrims visit the temple during its annual festival.
The Romans destroyed the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE.
Usage note
Do not use temple for a mosque or a church. Turkish 'tapınak' has the same limits; 'mabet' is a more general, formal word for a place of worship.
Common phrases
Hindu temple · Buddhist temple · temple complex · the Second Temple · temple ritual
In Sunni Islam, a person who leads prayers in a mosque; in Shia Islam, also one of the divinely guided leaders from the Prophet's family, such as Ali and Husayn.
Where you use it
Lowercase for a prayer leader (the local imam) and capitalized for the Shia Imams and as an honorific title for great scholars (Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam al-Ghazali). In Turkey, imams are civil servants employed by the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet).
Examples
The imam leads the daily prayers and teaches Qur'an classes in the evening.
Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the twelfth Imam is in occultation.
Usage note
Imam-hatip schools are usually called imam-hatip schools or vocational religious high schools in English.
Common phrases
the local imam · prayer leader · the Twelve Imams · imam-hatip school · lead as imam
A person authorized to perform sacred rituals, such as offering sacrifices or administering sacraments, in traditions such as Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity and Hinduism.
Where you use it
Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican clergy are ordained as priests; most Protestant churches prefer minister or pastor. The word is also used for Hindu temple priests and for priests in ancient religions. The institution is the priesthood; the adjective is priestly.
Examples
Catholic priests in the Latin Church are generally required to remain celibate.
In the temple, priests chant Sanskrit hymns during the morning ritual.
Usage note
Everyday Turkish often says 'papaz', especially for Orthodox and Protestant clergy; 'rahip' is the general and more formal word. A monk is not necessarily a priest.
A Jewish religious teacher and scholar trained in Jewish law, who often leads a congregation, teaches and answers questions on religious practice.
Where you use it
Also used as a title (Rabbi Cohen). The adjective rabbinic or rabbinical appears in rabbinic literature, rabbinic Judaism and rabbinical court. The Chief Rabbi of Turkey is called Hahambaşı in Turkish.
Examples
After the service, the rabbi explained the week's Torah portion to the congregation.
Rabbinic literature includes the Mishnah, the Talmud and the Midrash.
Usage note
Rabbi comes from Hebrew and originally meant 'my teacher' or 'my master'. It is pronounced RAB-eye.
Common phrases
Chief Rabbi · rabbinic literature · rabbinic Judaism · ordained as a rabbi
A building or group of buildings where a community of monks, or sometimes nuns, lives under religious vows and follows a shared rule of prayer and work.
Where you use it
Used for Christian, Buddhist and Hindu communities. The adjective monastic appears in monastic life, monastic rule and monastic orders. A community of nuns is often called a convent, and a large Christian monastery may be an abbey.
Examples
Sumela Monastery near Trabzon was an important centre of Orthodox monastic life.
In Thailand, many young men spend a few months in a Buddhist monastery.
Usage note
Stress is on the first syllable: MON-a-stree. In British English it often has only three syllables.
Common phrases
Buddhist monastery · enter a monastery · monastic life · monastery library
A man who has left ordinary life to live under religious vows, usually in a community, devoting himself to prayer, study or meditation.
Where you use it
Used for Christian, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu traditions; the female equivalent is nun. Christian monks traditionally take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Buddhist monks are bhikkhus, and the monastic community is the sangha.
Examples
Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka follow more than two hundred rules of discipline.
Medieval monks copied and preserved many ancient manuscripts.
Usage note
Turkish often uses 'rahip' for monks, which causes confusion with priest; 'keşiş' is the precise word. Monk is pronounced like 'munk', not 'mon-k'.
Common phrases
Buddhist monk · become a monk · monks and nuns · monastic vows
To make someone a priest, minister, rabbi or other religious leader through an official ceremony.
Where you use it
Mostly used in the passive: be ordained (as) a priest, newly ordained clergy. The noun is ordination (the ordination of women). Buddhist monks and nuns are also ordained into the monastic community. Sunni Islam has no ordination in this sense; imams are trained and appointed.
Examples
She was ordained as a rabbi after five years of study at the seminary.
The Church of England ordained its first women priests in 1994.
Usage note
In older and theological English, ordain can also mean 'decree' (as God has ordained). Seminary here is a training college for clergy, not a seminar (seminer).
Common phrases
be ordained a priest · newly ordained · ordination of women · ordained minister
An act, thought or failure to act that a religious tradition regards as breaking God's law or going against God's will.
Where you use it
You commit a sin, confess sins and ask forgiveness for them. Key phrases: original sin (a Christian doctrine developed especially by Augustine), mortal and venial sins (Catholic theology) and major sins (kaba'ir) in Islam. A person is a sinner; the adjective is sinful.
Examples
Augustine's doctrine of original sin shaped Western Christian theology for centuries.
Islamic ethics distinguishes major sins from minor ones.
Usage note
Sin is a religious idea; a crime is a legal one. An act can be a sin without being a crime, and the other way round.
Common phrases
commit a sin · original sin · forgiveness of sins · major sins · confess one's sins
In Islam, the divine law and guidance for all areas of life, which Muslim jurists interpret through the Qur'an, the sunna and methods of legal reasoning.
Where you use it
Also spelled shari'a or shariah. Scholars distinguish sharia, the ideal divine law, from fiqh, the human science of jurisprudence that interprets it. Most of its content concerns worship, family life, contracts and ethics. Academic texts avoid reducing it to criminal punishments.
Examples
Muslim jurists developed detailed methods for deriving rulings of sharia from the sources.
Most of the sharia literature deals with worship, family life and contracts rather than criminal law.
Usage note
In Turkish, 'şeriat' can sound political in public debate; academic Turkish often prefers 'İslam hukuku' or, for the human discipline, 'fıkıh'.
Common phrases
Islamic law and sharia · rulings of sharia · sharia and fiqh · principles of sharia
Jewish religious law, based on the Torah and developed in the Talmud and later legal codes, which guides daily life, worship, food and family matters.
Where you use it
Also spelled halacha or halakhah; the adjective is halakhic (a halakhic ruling, halakhic debate). The word comes from a Hebrew root meaning 'to walk', so it is often explained as 'the way'. Dietary rules (kashrut) and Sabbath rules are part of it.
Examples
The Shulchan Aruch, compiled in the sixteenth century, became a central code of halakha.
Orthodox communities ask their rabbi about questions of halakha, such as what is allowed on the Sabbath.
Usage note
The kh in halakha is a throaty sound like German ch, close to a strong Turkish h; the stress is usually on the last syllable in Hebrew.
Common phrases
Jewish law and halakha · halakhic ruling · observe halakha · halakhic debate
A formal, usually non-binding legal opinion given by a qualified Islamic scholar, a mufti, in answer to a question about religious law or practice.
Where you use it
A mufti issues or gives a fatwa, and a person requests or seeks one. The plural is fatwas or fatawa. Most fatwas deal with everyday matters such as prayer, inheritance, finance and food. Historians use collections of Ottoman fatwas to study social life.
Examples
The mufti issued a fatwa on whether this kind of online contract is permissible.
Collections of Ottoman fatwas tell historians a great deal about daily life.
Usage note
News media sometimes use fatwa as if it meant a death sentence. In fact it is any legal opinion, and most fatwas concern ordinary questions.
Common phrases
issue a fatwa · seek a fatwa · fatwa collection · official fatwa
The body of laws and regulations made by church authorities to govern a Christian church, especially the Catholic Church, its clergy and its members.
Where you use it
Covers topics such as marriage, the sacraments, church offices and discipline. The current Catholic Code of Canon Law dates from 1983; Orthodox and Anglican churches also have canon law based on council decisions. A specialist is a canonist.
Examples
Under canon law, a Catholic marriage can be declared null in certain circumstances.
The current Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church was promulgated in 1983.
Usage note
The Ottoman word kanun comes, through Arabic, from the same Greek word kanon ('rule'). Do not confuse canon with cannon (top).
Common phrases
Code of Canon Law · under canon law · canon law and civil law · study canon law
Giving money, food or goods to people in need as a religious duty or act of devotion, such as zakat in Islam, dana in Buddhism and tzedakah in Judaism.
Where you use it
A formal word used mostly in religious and historical writing; everyday English says charity. Alms (always plural in form) are the gifts themselves. In Islam, academic texts distinguish obligatory zakat, one of the Five Pillars, from voluntary sadaqa.
Examples
Almsgiving is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, through the yearly payment of zakat.
Medieval monasteries organized almsgiving to the poor at their gates.
Usage note
The l in alms is silent: /ɑːmz/, like 'arms' in British English.
Common phrases
practise almsgiving · obligatory almsgiving · almsgiving and fasting · give alms
The right of individuals and communities to hold, practise, change or leave a religion or belief, or to have none, without coercion.
Where you use it
Protected by Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Lawyers and NGOs also say freedom of religion or belief (FoRB). In the Turkish Constitution, Article 24 covers 'din ve vicdan hürriyeti'.
Examples
Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protects religious freedom.
The conference examined how courts balance religious freedom with other rights.
Usage note
Religious freedom includes the freedom not to believe; that is why legal texts say 'religion or belief'.
Common phrases
protect religious freedom · freedom of religion or belief · right to religious freedom · limits of religious freedom
The pursuit of direct, personal experience of God or ultimate reality, often through prayer, contemplation and spiritual discipline, found in many religious traditions.
Where you use it
Used for traditions such as Sufism in Islam, Kabbalah in Judaism and Christian mysticism. Scholars debate whether all mystical experience shares a common core (perennialism) or is shaped by each tradition. A practitioner is a mystic; the adjective is mystical.
Examples
Rumi's poetry is often read as a classic expression of Islamic mysticism.
In his lectures on mysticism, William James listed four marks of mystical experience.
Usage note
In everyday English, mystic can also suggest magic or fortune-telling; in academic writing it refers only to religious experience.
A person's inner life and search for meaning, connection or the sacred, either within a religious tradition or outside organized religion.
Where you use it
Used for the inner side of a tradition (Christian spirituality, Islamic spirituality) and, in sociology, for personal belief outside institutions. The phrase 'spiritual but not religious' describes people who reject organized religion but keep spiritual practices.
Examples
Surveys show interest in spirituality growing even as attendance at services falls.
The course on Islamic spirituality reads al-Ghazali alongside later Sufi authors.
Usage note
Do not confuse spirituality with Spiritualism, a movement that claims contact with the spirits of the dead (Turkish ruhçuluk or spiritizm).
Common phrases
Christian spirituality · Islamic spirituality · personal spirituality · spiritual but not religious · spiritual practice
A practice of training attention and awareness, for example by focusing on the breath, a word or an image, used in many religions for spiritual growth.
Where you use it
Common with Buddhist and Hindu practice (Buddhist meditation, yoga and meditation), but also used for Christian contemplative prayer and Sufi muraqaba. You practise or do meditation; the verb is meditate. Mindfulness is a secular adaptation of Buddhist meditation.
Examples
Buddhist monks may spend several hours a day in meditation.
Mindfulness programmes adapted Buddhist meditation techniques for hospitals and schools.
Usage note
Meditate on something can also simply mean 'think deeply about it' (meditate on a verse), which is close to Turkish tefekkür.
The mystical tradition of Islam, which seeks closeness to God through love, remembrance of God (dhikr), spiritual discipline and the guidance of a master.
Where you use it
A follower is a Sufi. Sufis are organized in orders (tariqa), such as the Mevlevi, Naqshbandi and Qadiri, led by a sheikh with disciples (murid). Sufi poetry, from Rumi to Yunus Emre, is a major research field. Academic English prefers Sufism; Turkish texts usually say tasavvuf.
Examples
Rumi's followers founded the Mevlevi order, one of the best-known Sufi orders.
Sufism spread across Anatolia through lodges, poets and wandering dervishes.
Usage note
Translate tarikat as Sufi order or brotherhood, not as sect: an order is a spiritual path within Islam, not a separate branch.
Common phrases
Sufi order · Sufi poetry · Sufi master · Sufi lodge · Sufi tradition
A way of life of strict self-discipline in which a person gives up comfort, pleasure or possessions in pursuit of religious or spiritual goals.
Where you use it
Found in many traditions: the Christian desert fathers, Hindu renouncers, Jain monks and early Muslim ascetics (zuhd). A person who lives this way is an ascetic, which is also the adjective. Max Weber used the phrase this-worldly asceticism for disciplined work in Protestant ethics.
Examples
Early Christian asceticism flourished among the monks of the Egyptian desert.
Weber's idea of this-worldly asceticism links Protestant ethics to disciplined work.
Usage note
Do not confuse ascetic (çileci) with aesthetic (estetik); they sound similar but mean very different things.
Common phrases
Christian asceticism · this-worldly asceticism · ascetic practices · ascetic life
In Buddhism and some other Indian traditions, a state of complete understanding and freedom from ignorance, often called awakening, as achieved by the Buddha.
Where you use it
You attain or reach enlightenment. It translates the Sanskrit bodhi, and many scholars now prefer awakening, since Buddha means 'the awakened one'. Zen traditions discuss sudden and gradual enlightenment.
Examples
According to tradition, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree at Bodh Gaya.
Chan and Zen teachers debated whether enlightenment is sudden or gradual.
Usage note
With a capital E, the Enlightenment is the eighteenth-century European intellectual movement (Aydınlanma Çağı), a completely different topic.
Common phrases
attain enlightenment · the Buddha's enlightenment · path to enlightenment · sudden enlightenment
The absence of belief in God or gods, or the explicit view that no God or gods exist.
Where you use it
Philosophers distinguish a weak sense (simply lacking belief) from a strong sense (denying that God exists). A person is an atheist; the adjective is atheist or atheistic. Sociologists of religion now study atheism and nonreligion as subjects in their own right.
Examples
The study of atheism has become a recognized field within the sociology of religion.
Historians trace some modern forms of atheism to eighteenth-century European thought.
Usage note
Methodological atheism (or agnosticism) is a research rule in religious studies: scholars set aside the question of God's existence while they study religion. It says nothing about their personal beliefs.
Common phrases
modern atheism · atheism and agnosticism · history of atheism · methodological atheism
The view that it is not known, or cannot be known, whether God or any ultimate reality exists.
Where you use it
A person who holds this view is an agnostic. Philosophers stress that agnosticism is about knowledge, while theism and atheism are about belief. In religious studies, methodological agnosticism means studying religion without deciding whether its claims are true.
Examples
T. H. Huxley coined the word 'agnostic' in 1869, and his agnosticism was widely debated.
Students often confuse agnosticism with atheism, but the two answer different questions.
Usage note
In everyday English, agnostic can mean 'not committed to one option' (the software is platform-agnostic).
Common phrases
methodological agnosticism · religious agnosticism · agnosticism and atheism
Belief in a personal God who created the world and remains active in it; in philosophy of religion, the view that such a God exists.
Where you use it
Classical theism describes God as all-powerful, all-knowing, perfectly good and unchanging. It is contrasted with deism (a creator who does not intervene), pantheism (God and the universe are identical) and atheism. A person is a theist; the adjective is theistic.
Examples
Classical theism describes God as all-powerful, all-knowing and perfectly good.
The debate between theism and atheism takes up much of the philosophy of religion course.
Usage note
Theism and deism are often confused: a deist believes in a creator but not in revelation or divine intervention.
Common phrases
classical theism · theism and atheism · theistic belief · open theism
The philosophical and theological question of how an all-powerful, all-knowing and perfectly good God can allow evil and suffering to exist.
Where you use it
Philosophers distinguish the logical problem of evil (God and evil cannot both exist) from the evidential problem (evil makes God's existence unlikely). They also separate moral evil, caused by humans, from natural evil, such as earthquakes. Responses include the free will defence and various theodicies.
Examples
The problem of evil is often seen as the strongest objection to theism.
Philosophers distinguish a logical and an evidential version of the problem of evil.
Usage note
In philosophy, evil covers all suffering, including suffering from disease and natural disasters, not only wickedness.
Common phrases
the logical problem of evil · the evidential problem of evil · respond to the problem of evil · natural evil
Existing beyond the physical world and the limits of human experience and understanding; often used to describe God or ultimate reality.
Where you use it
Usually contrasted with immanent, meaning present within the world. Many theologies describe God as both transcendent and immanent. The noun is transcendence. In Islamic theology, the related idea of God's being beyond all likeness is called tanzih.
Examples
Islamic theology stresses that God is transcendent and unlike any created thing.
Many mystics describe an encounter with something transcendent that words cannot express.
Usage note
Do not confuse transcendent with transcendental, a technical term in Kant's philosophy (Turkish transandantal).
Common phrases
a transcendent God · transcendent reality · transcendent and immanent · divine transcendence
An attempt to explain why a good and all-powerful God allows evil and suffering, defending God's justice; the term was coined by Leibniz in 1710.
Where you use it
Well-known types include the Augustinian theodicy (evil as the absence of good and the result of free will) and the soul-making theodicy associated with John Hick. Islamic theology discusses similar questions under divine justice ('adl) and wisdom (hikma). Max Weber used the word for any explanation of suffering and good fortune.
Examples
Leibniz's theodicy argued that this is the best of all possible worlds.
John Hick's soul-making theodicy presents suffering as a means of moral growth.
Usage note
The problem of evil is the challenge; a theodicy is one kind of answer to it. The word combines Greek theos (God) and dike (justice).
Common phrases
Augustinian theodicy · soul-making theodicy · free will theodicy · construct a theodicy
Short for 'Before the Common Era', a religiously neutral way of marking dates before year 1, used instead of BC; CE (Common Era) is used instead of AD.
Where you use it
Standard in religious studies and many history journals. The numbers are the same as BC and AD; only the labels change. Write the abbreviation after the year: 586 BCE, 70 CE. Islamic studies often add Hijri dates with AH (1453 CE / 857 AH).
Examples
The First Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed in the early sixth century BCE.
Most religious studies journals ask authors to use BCE and CE rather than BC and AD.
Usage note
In Turkish, MÖ (milattan önce) and MS (milattan sonra) are the normal neutral forms, so BCE corresponds to MÖ and CE to MS.
Common phrases
BCE and CE · in the fifth century BCE · around 500 BCE · first century CE
The sixteenth-century religious movement in Western Christianity, usually dated from Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, that led to the creation of Protestant churches.
Where you use it
Usually with the and a capital R (the Reformation, the Protestant Reformation). Key figures include Luther, Zwingli and Calvin. Historians also speak of the English Reformation and of the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation that responded to it.
Examples
The Reformation divided Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant churches.
The printing press helped spread the ideas of the Reformation very quickly.
Usage note
In Turkish, 'Reform' alone can mean any reform; 'Reform hareketi' or 'Reformasyon' makes the religious meaning clear.
Common phrases
the Protestant Reformation · the English Reformation · the Counter-Reformation · Reformation theology
A formal split within a religious community into separate groups, usually over doctrine, authority or practice.
Where you use it
Best known from Christian history: the East-West Schism, traditionally dated to 1054, and the Western Schism (1378-1417), when rival popes claimed authority. A schism can be caused, deepened or healed. The adjective is schismatic.
Examples
The schism of 1054 is traditionally seen as the break between the churches of Rome and Constantinople.
Historians now describe the schism as a long process rather than a single event.
Usage note
Both SKIZ-um and SIZ-um are accepted pronunciations; SKIZ-um is more common today.
Common phrases
the Great Schism · East-West Schism · heal a schism · cause a schism
A belief or teaching that the authorities of a religious community judge to be contrary to its accepted doctrine.
Where you use it
Historians use it descriptively: a teaching is a heresy only from the point of view of a particular orthodoxy. Many scholars therefore prefer heterodox. Phrases: accuse someone of heresy, condemn a teaching as heresy, heresy trials. A person is a heretic; the adjective is heretical.
Examples
Arius's teaching about Christ was condemned as heresy at the Council of Nicaea.
Historians treat heresy as a label applied by those who controlled doctrine.
Usage note
Turkish 'sapkınlık' sounds judgemental; in academic Turkish, 'heterodoksi' or 'heretik' is a more neutral choice when you are describing, not condemning.
Common phrases
accuse of heresy · condemn as heresy · heresy trial · medieval heresy
The blending of beliefs, practices or symbols from different religious traditions into a new form.
Where you use it
Used for cases such as the Greco-Egyptian cult of Serapis, Afro-Caribbean religions and shared saint veneration among Muslims and Christians in Anatolia and the Balkans. The adjective is syncretic. Some scholars avoid the term because it can suggest that 'pure' religions ever existed.
Examples
The cult of Serapis in Ptolemaic Egypt is a classic example of religious syncretism.
Some scholars avoid the word syncretism, arguing that every tradition has always mixed with others.
Usage note
In some theological writing, syncretism is a negative word meaning an improper mixture; in religious studies it is used descriptively.
Common phrases
religious syncretism · syncretic practices · syncretic traditions · cultural syncretism
The process by which religion loses influence over society, institutions and individual lives, for example as law, education and politics become independent of religious authority.
Where you use it
Central in sociology of religion. The secularization thesis, influential in the 1960s, predicted that modernization would weaken religion; later research questioned it, and some speak of desecularization. British English also spells it secularisation.
Examples
The secularization thesis predicted that religion would decline as societies modernized.
Peter Berger, once a leading theorist of secularization, later argued that most of the world remained deeply religious.
Usage note
Turkish 'laiklik' (from French laïcité) describes how the state relates to religion; it is a political principle, not the same as secularization, which is a social process.
Common phrases
the secularization thesis · process of secularization · theories of secularization · secularization and modernity
Ten questions from this glossary. Pick the right meaning for each term and see your score.
How to learn religious studies & theology vocabulary
Learn the attribution phrases that keep academic writing neutral: 'Muslims believe that', 'in Christian tradition', 'according to the Hebrew Bible', 'adherents understand this as'. They let you describe a belief accurately without stating it as your own claim.
Read real texts from the field every week, such as encyclopedia entries on religion, journal articles and English translations of scripture, and note how scholars introduce terms from Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit or Greek.
Pay attention to capitalization: names of religions, their followers, scriptures and festivals take a capital letter (Islam, Buddhist, the Bible, Ramadan), and God is capitalized when it names the one God of a monotheistic religion.
Collect the accepted spelling variants of transliterated words, such as Qur'an and Quran, Shia and Shi'a, Daoism and Taoism, and use one form consistently in the same paper.
Keep a list of Turkish terms that have no one-to-one English equivalent, such as namaz and dua (both prayer in English), mezhep (school of law, denomination or branch) and semavi din (usually Abrahamic religion), and check it before you translate.
Frequently asked questions
How can I learn theology and religious studies vocabulary in English?
Study by topic rather than alphabetically: scripture and interpretation, worship and ritual, institutions, ethics and law, and the vocabulary of each major tradition. Learn every term inside a full sentence, ideally one taken from an academic text, and note which tradition it belongs to. Reading encyclopedia entries and introductory textbooks in English, then summarizing them in a few sentences of your own, fixes the vocabulary much faster than word lists alone.
What is the difference between theology and religious studies?
Theology usually studies a religion from within its own tradition and asks questions about God, doctrine and practice that matter to believers, as in Christian theology or Islamic theology. Religious studies examines religions from the outside with the methods of history, sociology, anthropology, psychology and philosophy, without taking a position on whether their claims are true. Many university departments combine both, which is why you will often see the name 'Theology and Religious Studies'.
How do I write about a religion neutrally in an English academic paper?
Attribute beliefs to the people who hold them ('Sikhs regard the Guru Granth Sahib as a living Guru') instead of stating them as facts or as errors. Use the names communities use for themselves, avoid outdated labels such as 'Mohammedan', and prefer descriptive words like 'tradition', 'practice' and 'interpretation' to loaded ones like 'superstition' or 'cult'. Use BCE and CE for dates, and give each tradition's key terms in their accepted transliteration the first time they appear.
Should I write Qur'an, Quran or Koran?
Current academic English prefers Qur'an or Quran, which are closer to the Arabic pronunciation; Koran is an older spelling that you will still see in older books and some newspapers. The same applies to other transliterated names, such as Muhammad rather than Mohammed in scholarly writing. Choose one form, follow your journal's or department's style guide if it has one, and keep it consistent.
How is 'İlahiyat Fakültesi' translated into English?
Turkish universities most often use 'Faculty of Theology'; some use 'Faculty of Divinity' or 'Faculty of Islamic Sciences', depending on the curriculum. On a CV or in a paper, use the official English name your university uses. Department names follow the same logic: 'Dinler Tarihi' is usually 'History of Religions', 'Kelam' is 'Islamic Theology' or 'Kalam', and 'Tefsir' is 'Qur'anic Exegesis'.
